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**Tier 3 of 3.** Full reference covering Parts 1–22 plus appendices (commonly misspelled words, redundancies, clichés, problematic phrases, tricky plurals). ~25K tokens. For most articles, the [Condensed]({{ "/docs/ap-compatible-condensed" | relative_url }}) tier is the recommended default.

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# AP Style Comprehensive Reference

Local market style guides may override specific entries. Subject-matter sections (Sports, Business, Legal) may override general number or abbreviation rules for their domains.

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# Part 1: Punctuation

---

## Apostrophe

### Possessives—Singular Nouns

Add apostrophe-s to singular nouns, including most proper nouns ending in s, x, or z.

**Examples:**
- the company's earnings
- the witness's testimony
- James's book
- the boss's office
- Marx's theories
- the hostess's invitation
- Dickens's novels
- Kansas's laws
- Burns's poetry
- Xerox's market share

**Special cases for proper nouns ending in s:**

Use only an apostrophe (no additional s) for:
- Ancient classical names: Achilles' heel, Socrates' philosophy, Hercules' strength, Euripides' plays
- Biblical and religious names ending in s: Jesus' disciples, Moses' laws
- Names of more than one syllable ending in an "eez" sound: Ramses' reign, Xerxes' army

When the next word begins with s, use only an apostrophe:
- for appearance' sake
- for conscience' sake
- for goodness' sake

### Possessives—Plural Nouns

For plurals ending in s, add only an apostrophe. For plurals not ending in s, add apostrophe-s.

**Regular plurals:**
- the companies' earnings (multiple companies)
- the witnesses' accounts (multiple witnesses)
- the Joneses' house (the Jones family)
- the churches' donations
- the bosses' meeting
- the armies' maneuvers

**Irregular plurals:**
- the children's toys
- the women's movement
- the men's department
- the alumni's donations
- the people's choice
- the media's role
- the criteria's validity

### Possessives—Compound Words and Phrases

Add apostrophe-s to the word closest to the object possessed.

**Examples:**
- the attorney general's opinion
- the attorneys general's opinions (multiple AGs)
- my mother-in-law's house
- my fathers-in-law's businesses (multiple fathers-in-law, each with own business)
- the secretary of state's policies
- someone else's problem
- everybody else's concern
- the editor in chief's decision

**Possessives with descriptive phrases:**
- the University of Michigan's stadium
- the chief executive officer's salary
- the District of Columbia's budget

### Possessives—Joint vs. Individual Possession

For joint possession (shared ownership), use apostrophe-s after the last noun only. For individual possession (separate ownership), use apostrophe-s after each noun.

**Joint possession:**
- Smith and Jones's law firm (they share one firm)
- the president and vice president's statement (joint statement)
- Jack and Jill's house (they share the house)
- Minneapolis and St. Paul's metropolitan area

**Individual possession:**
- Smith's and Jones's law firms (each has their own firm)
- the president's and vice president's statements (separate statements)
- Jack's and Jill's cars (each has their own car)
- Democrats' and Republicans' positions

### Possessives—Pronouns

Personal pronouns have their own possessive forms. Never use apostrophes with them.

**Correct:**
- its (belonging to it)
- his, hers, ours, yours, theirs
- whose (belonging to whom)

**Common errors:**
- Wrong: The dog wagged it's tail.
- Correct: The dog wagged its tail.
- Wrong: The book is her's.
- Correct: The book is hers.

**Indefinite pronouns** do take apostrophes:
- anyone's guess
- everybody's business
- no one's fault
- somebody's car
- one's own opinion

### Possessives—Inanimate Objects

For inanimate objects, the possessive is generally acceptable, though rewording with "of" is sometimes clearer.

**Acceptable:**
- the car's engine
- the building's facade
- the company's policy
- the committee's decision
- the storm's path

**Consider rewording when the possessive sounds awkward:**
- Awkward: the table's leg
- Better: the leg of the table, the table leg

### Quasi-Possessives

Some expressions use possessive forms idiomatically even though possession isn't literal.

**Examples:**
- two weeks' notice
- three days' time
- six months' experience
- your money's worth
- for old times' sake
- a stone's throw

But: a two-week notice (when used as modifier)

### Contractions

Use apostrophe to indicate omitted letters in contractions.

**Common contractions:**
- it's (it is, it has)
- don't (do not)
- can't (cannot)
- won't (will not)
- I'm (I am)
- you're (you are)
- they're (they are)
- we've (we have)
- should've (should have)
- who's (who is, who has)
- that's (that is, that has)
- there's (there is, there has)
- let's (let us)

**Informal contractions (use in quoted speech only):**
- rock 'n' roll
- ma'am
- 'tis, 'twas
- ne'er-do-well
- o'clock

**Critical distinctions:**
- it's (contraction of "it is") vs. its (possessive)
- you're (contraction of "you are") vs. your (possessive)
- they're (contraction of "they are") vs. their (possessive) vs. there (location)
- who's (contraction of "who is") vs. whose (possessive)

### Omitted Figures

Use apostrophe to indicate omitted numerals.

**Examples:**
- the class of '24
- the spirit of '76
- the '60s
- the '90s economy
- summer of '42

### Plurals of Single Letters

Use apostrophe-s for plurals of single letters to avoid confusion.

**Examples:**
- Mind your p's and q's.
- He earned straight A's.
- Oakland A's (the team)
- Dot your i's and cross your t's.
- There are two t's in "butter."

Do not use apostrophe for plurals of multiple letters, numerals, or words used as words.

**Examples:**
- She learned her ABCs.
- temperatures in the 80s
- the 1990s
- the three Rs
- too many ands in the sentence
- several IOUs

---

## Colon

### Introducing Lists, Explanations, or Amplification

Use a colon to introduce a list, explanation, or amplification of what precedes it. The colon says: "Here comes information about what I just said."

**Basic rule:** What precedes the colon must be a complete sentence (independent clause).

**Correct:**
- The company cited three reasons: declining sales, rising costs and increased competition.
- He had one goal: winning the championship.
- The answer was obvious: They needed more funding.

**Incorrect (colon after incomplete clause):**
- Wrong: The ingredients are: flour, sugar and eggs.
- Wrong: His favorite sports include: basketball, soccer and tennis.
- Wrong: The report was written by: Smith, Jones and Brown.

**Correct revisions:**
- The ingredients are flour, sugar and eggs.
- His favorite sports include basketball, soccer and tennis.
- Three ingredients are required: flour, sugar and eggs.

### Capitalization After Colons

Capitalize the first word after a colon only if:
1. It begins a complete sentence
2. It begins a direct quotation
3. The material is a proper noun

**Lowercase after colon (phrase or incomplete sentence):**
- The company cited three factors: labor costs, supply chain issues and competition.
- He wanted one thing: respect.

**Uppercase after colon (complete sentence):**
- The verdict was clear: The defendant was guilty on all counts.
- One thing became apparent: Success would not come easily.

### Introducing Quotations

Use a colon to introduce a quotation of one or more complete sentences.

**Examples:**
- The mayor issued a statement: "We will not tolerate this behavior. Those responsible will be held accountable."
- Einstein wrote: "Imagination is more important than knowledge."

For quotations that are incomplete sentences or that flow directly from the attribution, use a comma.

**Examples:**
- The mayor said, "We will investigate."
- She described the project as "transformative."

### Dialogue and Q&A Format

Use colon in Q&A formats and transcripts.

**Examples:**
- Q: What happened next?
- A: The door opened.

- Interviewer: How did you feel?
- Subject: Terrified.

### Time

Use colon to separate hours from minutes, and minutes from seconds.

**Examples:**
- 3:45 p.m.
- 10:30 a.m.
- a time of 2:15:33.7

Noon and midnight stand alone; no colon needed.

### Ratios

Use colon for ratios.

**Examples:**
- The ratio was 3:1.
- The odds were 5:2.
- an 8:3 vote

### Biblical and Legal Citations

Use colon in citations.

**Examples:**
- Genesis 1:1
- Matthew 5:3-12
- 2 Kings 2:11

### Lists Following Headlines

In headlines and subheads, colons may introduce lists without requiring a complete sentence to precede them.

**Example:**
- Winter storms: What you need to know

---

## Comma

The comma indicates a pause or separates elements. Its overuse clutters prose; its underuse creates confusion.

### Serial Comma (Oxford Comma)

Do not use a comma before the final conjunction in a simple series.

**AP style (no serial comma):**
- The flag is red, white and blue.
- She bought apples, oranges and bananas.
- The report covers sales, marketing and operations.
- He is tall, dark and handsome.

**Exceptions—use the serial comma when:**

1. An element of the series requires a conjunction:
- Breakfast included bacon and eggs, toast, and orange juice.
- The choices were chocolate, vanilla, and strawberry and banana.

2. The series is complex or could be misread:
- The policy applies to full-time employees, part-time employees who work more than 20 hours per week, and contractors with agreements exceeding six months.
- I'd like to thank my parents, Mother Teresa, and the Pope. (Without the serial comma: "my parents, Mother Teresa and the Pope" suggests your parents are those two individuals.)

### Introductory Elements

Use a comma after introductory clauses, phrases, or words that precede the main clause.

**Introductory clauses:**
- After the meeting ended, she returned to her office.
- When the storm hit, residents evacuated.
- Although he was tired, he finished the project.
- If the bill passes, taxes will increase.

**Introductory phrases:**
- In 2024, the company expanded to three new markets.
- Speaking to reporters, the senator denied the allegations.
- At the conclusion of the trial, the jury deliberated.
- Despite the setback, they persevered.

**Introductory words:**
- However, the results were inconclusive.
- Meanwhile, negotiations continued.
- Therefore, the motion failed.
- Yes, we will attend.
- No, the report is not ready.

**Exception:** Short introductory phrases (generally fewer than four words) may omit the comma if no ambiguity results.

**Comma optional:**
- In January she resigned.
- On Tuesday the council will vote.
- Last week we met.

**Comma required for clarity:**
- In the winter, time seems to slow down. (Not: In the winter time...)
- Before leaving, employees must sign out. (Not: Before leaving employees...)

### Nonessential vs. Essential Elements

**Nonessential (nonrestrictive)** elements can be removed without changing the essential meaning of the sentence. Set them off with commas.

**Essential (restrictive)** elements are necessary to the sentence's meaning. Do not set them off with commas.

**Nonessential (use commas):**
- John Smith, who lives in Boston, testified yesterday. (Identifying information is already established; "who lives in Boston" adds extra detail.)
- The budget proposal, which the committee approved Tuesday, faces a vote next week.
- My brother, Tom, is a lawyer. (Only one brother; "Tom" is extra information.)

**Essential (no commas):**
- The man who lives in Boston testified yesterday. (Tells us which man; essential to meaning.)
- Reporters who fail to meet deadlines may be reassigned. (Specifies which reporters.)
- My brother Tom is a lawyer. (I have multiple brothers; "Tom" identifies which one.)

**Test:** If you can remove the element and the sentence's core meaning remains unchanged, use commas. If the element identifies or restricts what you're talking about, omit commas.

### Appositives

Appositives (nouns or noun phrases that rename another noun) follow the essential/nonessential rule.

**Nonessential appositive (commas):**
- The president, Joe Biden, signed the bill.
- The newspaper, The New York Times, broke the story.
- Chicago, the largest city in Illinois, hosted the convention.

**Essential appositive (no commas):**
- The novel "The Great Gatsby" remains popular. (Title is essential to identify which novel.)
- His son Michael graduated. (Implies multiple sons; identifies which one.)
- The composer Beethoven was deaf.

### Conjunctions

Use a comma before coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet) that join independent clauses.

**Comma required:**
- The company posted record profits, but analysts remained cautious.
- She wanted to attend, yet she had a prior commitment.
- He ran for the bus, and he made it just in time.

**No comma when the second clause lacks its own subject (not independent):**
- The company posted record profits but faced skepticism from analysts.
- She wanted to attend but had a prior commitment.
- He ran for the bus and made it just in time.

### Coordinate Adjectives

Use commas between coordinate adjectives—adjectives that independently modify the same noun and could be reordered or connected with "and."

**Coordinate (use comma):**
- a long, winding road (a winding, long road; a long and winding road)
- the cold, dark night
- a tall, slender woman

**Cumulative (no comma)—adjectives build on each other and sound wrong if reordered:**
- a little old lady (not: old little lady)
- the bright blue sky (not: blue bright sky)
- three large oak trees

### Direct Address

Use commas to set off names or terms used in direct address.

**Examples:**
- Governor, will you sign the bill?
- I think, Mr. Chairman, that we should adjourn.
- Yes, Senator, the report is ready.
- Thank you, Sarah, for your help.

### Parenthetical Elements

Use commas to set off parenthetical expressions, transitional words, and interjections.

**Examples:**
- The plan, frankly, has little chance of success.
- The results, to be sure, were disappointing.
- The project, in my opinion, needs more funding.
- Well, that's unexpected.
- Oh, I didn't realize that.

### Dates

Use commas to set off the year in month-day-year format. No comma in month-year format.

**Month-day-year (commas):**
- The meeting is July 4, 2024, at noon.
- On Sept. 11, 2001, the attacks occurred.
- The Jan. 6, 2021, riot at the Capitol...

**Month-year (no comma):**
- The meeting is in July 2024.
- She joined in September 2020.

**Day-month-year (no comma—military/international style):**
- 4 July 2024

### Geographic Names

Use commas to set off city from state or country, and set off what follows.

**Examples:**
- She lives in Sacramento, California, near her parents.
- The company is based in Paris, France, and employs 5,000.
- He moved from Boston, Massachusetts.

No comma when only the state name is used:
- The California delegation arrived.

### Quotations

Use comma to introduce a direct quotation that is a complete sentence, and place the comma inside closing quotation marks.

**Introducing quotations:**
- The mayor said, "We will investigate."
- "I'll be there," she promised.

**Commas inside quotation marks:**
- "The project is finished," she announced.
- He called it "a complete disaster," but remained hopeful.

### Numbers

Use commas in numbers higher than 999. See the Numbers section for exceptions.

**Examples:**
- 1,500
- 250,000
- 7,654,321

### Unnecessary Commas

Do not use a comma:

**Between subject and verb:**
- Wrong: The president of the company, announced the merger.
- Correct: The president of the company announced the merger.

**Before "that" introducing an essential clause:**
- Wrong: He said, that he would attend.
- Correct: He said that he would attend.

**After "such as" or "including":**
- Wrong: Sports such as, basketball and soccer are popular.
- Correct: Sports such as basketball and soccer are popular.

**Between compound elements that are not independent clauses:**
- Wrong: She finished the report, and submitted it.
- Correct: She finished the report and submitted it.

---

## Dash

Two types of dashes serve different purposes: the em dash (—) and the en dash (–).

### Em Dash

The em dash indicates an abrupt change, an emphatic pause, or sets off a series within a phrase.

**Abrupt change or interruption:**
- The president—who seemed distracted—left without comment.
- He was—to put it mildly—upset.
- "I think we should—wait, what was that noise?"

**Emphasis or amplification:**
- She had one goal in mind—victory.
- They had everything they needed—money, power and influence.

**Setting off a series:**
- Three states—California, Texas and Florida—account for most of the population.
- The suspects—a man, a woman and a teenager—were arrested.

**Spacing:** AP style calls for spaces before and after em dashes. (Note: some style guides use no spaces.)
- Correct: The report—released Tuesday—confirmed the findings.

**Use sparingly.** Too many em dashes clutter prose. Often commas or parentheses work better.

### En Dash

The en dash (slightly shorter than em dash) is used primarily in ranges.

**Ranges:**
- pages 45–67
- the years 2020–2024
- the New York–London flight
- the score was 24–17

**In practice:** Many publications, including some following AP, use hyphens for ranges in running text. En dashes are more common in technical contexts, charts, and headlines.

---

## Ellipsis

The ellipsis (...) indicates an omission or a pause.

### Omission in Quotations

Use ellipsis to show that words have been omitted from a quoted passage.

**Examples:**
- The senator said, "The bill ... will transform how we approach education."
- According to the report, "The company's performance ... exceeded expectations."

**Spacing:** Use a space before and after an ellipsis.

**Beginning and end:** Generally, do not use ellipsis at the beginning or end of a quote unless necessary to show the thought is incomplete.

- Unnecessary: "...the project will begin in January."
- Better: "The project will begin in January."

### Trailing Off

Use ellipsis to indicate a thought trailing off or speech that fades.

**Examples:**
- "I thought we could ... never mind."
- "If only I had known ..."

### Hesitation

Use ellipsis to show a pause or hesitation in speech.

**Examples:**
- "The results are ... complicated."
- "I wanted to tell you ... I'm sorry."

### With Other Punctuation

When an ellipsis ends a sentence, add a period (four dots total).

**Examples:**
- "The plan seemed foolproof. ..."
- She wondered about the future. ...

When a sentence ends with a question mark or exclamation point before the ellipsis, retain that punctuation.

---

## Exclamation Point

Use the exclamation point to express surprise, incredulity, or other strong emotion. Use sparingly in news writing.

### Appropriate Uses

**Direct quotes expressing strong emotion:**
- "Get out of here!" he shouted.
- "Fire!" someone screamed.

**Interjections:**
- "Wow! That's incredible."

### Avoid Overuse

In news writing, facts should convey significance. Exclamation points suggest editorializing.

- Awkward: The company lost $5 billion!
- Better: The company lost $5 billion.

### Placement

Place exclamation point inside quotation marks when it's part of the quoted material.

- She yelled, "Stop!"
- Did she really yell "Stop!"?

---

## Hyphen

Hyphens join words and separate syllables. They are one of the most challenging punctuation marks to master.

### Compound Modifiers Before a Noun

Hyphenate compound modifiers (two or more words expressing a single concept) when they precede the noun they modify.

**Hyphenate before the noun:**
- a well-known author
- a first-quarter touchdown
- a full-time job
- a 10-year-old boy
- a high-speed chase
- decision-making process
- government-owned land
- record-breaking performance
- English-speaking countries

**No hyphen after the noun:**
- The author is well known.
- The boy is 10 years old.
- She works full time.
- The chase was high speed.

**No hyphen when the first word is an adverb ending in -ly:**
- a newly elected official (not: newly-elected)
- a highly regarded expert
- an internationally known brand
- a fully loaded truck

### Compound Modifiers with Numbers

**Age:**
- the 5-year-old girl
- a 30-year-old man
- 8-year-olds

**Dimensions:**
- a 6-foot-tall fence
- a 5-by-7-inch photo
- 5-foot-2 (or 5 feet 2 inches)

**Time:**
- a two-hour meeting
- a 30-day deadline
- a five-year plan

### Compound Nouns

Some compound nouns are hyphenated; others are one word or two words. Consult the dictionary when uncertain.

**Hyphenated compound nouns:**
- mother-in-law, brother-in-law
- editor-in-chief
- president-elect
- runner-up
- follow-up (noun)
- cease-fire
- self-esteem

**One word:**
- basketball
- notebook
- firefighter
- workplace
- childcare

**Two words:**
- ice cream
- high school
- real estate
- post office

### Prefixes

Most prefixes do not require hyphens, but some do.

**No hyphen (most cases):**
- antiwar, antitrust
- coauthor, cooperate
- infrastructure
- interagency
- interstate
- midterm, midday
- nonfiction, nonprofit
- overrate
- postwar
- prewar, preseason
- semiannual
- subcommittee
- ultramodern
- underestimate

**Hyphenate when:**

1. The prefix ends in a vowel and the root word begins with the same vowel:
- re-elect (but reelect is increasingly accepted)
- re-enter
- pre-empt (but preempt is increasingly accepted)
- co-owner
- anti-intellectual

2. The prefix is before a capitalized word:
- un-American
- pre-Columbian
- anti-American
- mid-Atlantic (but midterm)
- trans-Atlantic

3. To distinguish from another word:
- re-cover (cover again) vs. recover (get better)
- re-sign (sign again) vs. resign (quit)
- re-creation (creating again) vs. recreation (fun activities)
- re-form (form again) vs. reform (improve)

4. With "self-," "ex-" (meaning former), and "all-":
- self-esteem, self-defense
- ex-president, ex-wife
- all-American, all-inclusive

5. With "great-" in family relationships:
- great-grandmother
- great-great-grandfather

6. With "-elect":
- president-elect
- governor-elect

### Suspensive Hyphenation

When two or more compound modifiers share a common element, use suspensive hyphenation.

**Examples:**
- 10- to 15-year sentences
- first- and second-place finishers
- long- and short-term goals
- full- and part-time employees
- pre- and post-war periods

### Ethnic Terms

Do not hyphenate ethnic or national terms used as modifiers unless they are of equal weight.

**No hyphen:**
- African American (noun and adjective)
- Asian American students
- Italian American community
- Native American traditions

**Hyphen for equal weight:**
- Irish-American heritage (equally Irish and American)
- Sino-Japanese relations

### Words Not to Hyphenate

**Common errors—no hyphen needed:**
- healthcare (one word in all uses per AP Stylebook 58th edition; previously "health care" as noun and "health-care" as adjective—now closed compound in all usages)
- child care
- civil rights (noun; but civil-rights when adjective)
- real estate (noun)
- science fiction (noun)
- percent (one word)

---

## Parentheses

Parentheses set off supplemental or explanatory material that is less essential than material set off by em dashes.

### Supplemental Information

**Examples:**
- The budget ($3 million) was approved.
- He graduated from Harvard (Class of 2015) and joined the firm.
- The candidate (D-Calif.) spoke at the convention.

### Punctuation with Parentheses

If a parenthetical element is within a sentence, punctuation goes outside the closing parenthesis.

**Example:**
- The budget ($3 million) was approved by the council.

If a complete sentence stands alone in parentheses, punctuation goes inside.

**Example:**
- The council approved the budget. (The vote was 7-2.)

### Area Codes

Enclose area codes in parentheses.

**Example:**
- (555) 123-4567

### Political Affiliations

Use parentheses for political party and state.

**Examples:**
- Sen. Jane Smith (D-N.Y.)
- Rep. John Jones (R-Texas)

### Avoid Overuse

Parentheses can disrupt reading flow. Consider whether the information should be woven into the sentence or set off with em dashes instead.

---

## Period

### End of Sentences

Use a period at the end of declarative and mildly imperative sentences.

**Declarative:**
- The meeting ended at noon.

**Mildly imperative:**
- Please submit the form by Friday.

### Abbreviations

Use periods with most abbreviations. See the Abbreviations section for specifics.

**With periods:**
- U.S. (adjective: U.S. policy)
- U.N.
- a.m., p.m.
- i.e., e.g.
- Dr., Mr., Mrs.

**Without periods:**
- USA (noun: She lives in the USA)
- FBI, CIA, NATO
- CEO, CFO
- mph, kph

### Ellipsis at End of Sentence

When an ellipsis ends a sentence, add a period (four dots total, with space before):

- She wondered if it was true. ...

### With Quotation Marks

Periods always go inside closing quotation marks.

**Examples:**
- He called it "a disaster."
- The article, titled "New Findings," appeared Tuesday.

### Initials

Use periods and no space with initials.

**Examples:**
- J.K. Rowling
- F.D.R.
- M.L.K. Jr.

---

## Question Mark

### Direct Questions

Use a question mark at the end of a direct question.

**Examples:**
- Who won the election?
- "Will you attend?" she asked.

### Indirect Questions

Do not use a question mark for indirect questions.

**Examples:**
- He asked who won the election.
- She wondered whether they would attend.

### Placement with Quotation Marks

Place the question mark inside quotation marks if the quote itself is a question. Place it outside if the overall sentence is a question but the quoted material is not.

**Inside:**
- She asked, "Are you coming?"
- "Who won?" he asked.

**Outside:**
- Did she really call it "a success"?
- Have you read "The Great Gatsby"?

### Series of Questions

Short questions in a series may each have a question mark.

**Example:**
- Who was there? What happened? When did it occur?

---

## Quotation Marks

### Direct Quotations

Use double quotation marks for direct quotations—the exact words spoken or written.

**Examples:**
- "The project is on schedule," she said.
- He described the proposal as "dead on arrival."

### Quotes Within Quotes

Use single quotation marks for a quote within a quote.

**Example:**
- "I heard him say 'I quit' and walk out," she testified.

### Placement of Punctuation

**Always inside quotation marks:**
- Periods
- Commas

**Depends on context:**
- Question marks and exclamation points go inside if they're part of the quoted material, outside if they're part of the overall sentence.

**Inside:**
- "Who won?" she asked.
- He shouted, "Fire!"

**Outside:**
- Did she call it "a success"?
- I can't believe he said "no problem"!

**Always outside quotation marks:**
- Colons
- Semicolons

### Titles of Works

Use quotation marks for titles of:
- Books, movies, TV shows, plays, operas, albums, songs
- Magazine and newspaper articles
- Speeches and lectures
- Poems

**Examples:**
- "The Great Gatsby"
- "60 Minutes"
- "Yesterday" by The Beatles
- "I Have a Dream"

See the Composition Titles section for more detail.

### Words as Words

Use quotation marks for words used in a special sense, as words, or for irony.

**Examples:**
- The word "affect" is often confused with "effect."
- He used "literally" incorrectly.
- The "reform" actually made things worse.

Do not overuse ironic quotation marks. They can seem snide.

### Nicknames

Use quotation marks for nicknames inserted into a name.

**Example:**
- George "The Babe" Ruth
- Joseph "Joe" Biden

### Unfamiliar Terms

Use quotation marks on first reference for unfamiliar terms, slang, or technical jargon being introduced.

**Example:**
- The company uses "agile methodology," a project management approach that emphasizes flexibility.

---

## Semicolon

The semicolon indicates a greater separation than a comma but less than a period.

### Joining Independent Clauses

Use a semicolon to join closely related independent clauses not connected by a coordinating conjunction.

**Examples:**
- The company posted record profits; analysts praised the turnaround.
- She disagreed with the decision; she voted against it.
- The project succeeded; the team celebrated.

A semicolon can also join independent clauses before a conjunctive adverb (however, therefore, moreover, nevertheless, consequently, furthermore).

**Examples:**
- The company posted profits; however, analysts remained cautious.
- She wanted to attend; nevertheless, she declined.

### Series with Internal Commas

Use semicolons to separate elements in a series when those elements contain commas.

**Examples:**
- The delegation included Sen. Smith, D-N.Y.; Rep. Jones, R-Texas; and Gov. Brown, D-Calif.
- The company has offices in New York, N.Y.; Los Angeles, Calif.; and Chicago, Ill.
- They visited Paris, France; London, England; and Rome, Italy.

### Placement with Quotation Marks

Semicolons always go outside closing quotation marks.

**Example:**
- She called it "a disaster"; he disagreed.

---

# Part 2: Capitalization

---

## General Principles

### Sentence Beginnings

Capitalize the first word of every sentence, including sentences within quotations.

**Examples:**
- The meeting was canceled.
- She asked, "What time is the vote?"
- "The report," she said, "confirms our suspicions."
- The question remains: What happens next? (Capitalize after colon if complete sentence.)

### Proper Nouns vs. Common Nouns

**Proper nouns** (specific names) are capitalized. **Common nouns** (general categories) are lowercase.

**Proper nouns:**
- Pacific Ocean, Mississippi River, Rocky Mountains
- President Biden, Queen Elizabeth II
- Harvard University, United States Congress
- The New York Times, Microsoft

**Common nouns:**
- the ocean, the river, the mountains
- the president, the queen
- the university, the congress
- the newspaper, the company

**The principle:** Capitalize when the word is part of a formal name. Use lowercase when used generically.

### Lists After Colons

Capitalize the first word after a colon only if what follows is a complete sentence.

**Complete sentence (capitalize):**
- The verdict was clear: He was guilty on all counts.
- One thing is certain: Change is coming.

**Phrase or fragment (lowercase):**
- The ingredients include: flour, sugar and eggs.
- She had one goal: victory.

---

## Titles of People

### Formal Titles Before Names

Capitalize formal titles immediately before a name. Lowercase titles after a name or standing alone.

**Before name (capitalize):**
- President Joe Biden
- Gov. Gavin Newsom
- Sen. Elizabeth Warren
- Dr. Anthony Fauci
- Pope Francis
- Queen Elizabeth II
- Chief Justice John Roberts

**After name or alone (lowercase):**
- Joe Biden, president of the United States
- Gavin Newsom, governor of California
- the president addressed the nation
- she is a senator from Massachusetts
- he was named chief executive officer

### Exceptions—Titles Always Lowercase

Some titles are always lowercase, even before a name:
- former President Donald Trump (former always lowercase)
- acting Director Jane Smith (acting always lowercase)
- astronaut John Glenn
- lawyer F. Lee Bailey
- coach Nick Saban

### Long Titles

For lengthy titles, place them after the name and lowercase.

**Awkward:**
- National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Director Jane Smith spoke.

**Better:**
- Jane Smith, director of the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, spoke.

### Job Descriptions vs. Titles

Job descriptions are lowercase. Formal titles may be capitalized before a name.

**Job descriptions (always lowercase):**
- astronaut Neil Armstrong
- heart surgeon Michael DeBakey
- movie star Tom Hanks
- former first lady Michelle Obama

**Test:** If "the" can be inserted before the title naturally, it's likely a job description, not a formal title.
- "The teacher John Smith" sounds right—teacher is a job description.
- "The Pope Francis" sounds wrong—Pope is a title.

### First Reference vs. Subsequent Reference

Use full title on first reference. Use the person's last name only (no title) on subsequent references.

**First reference:**
- President Joe Biden signed the bill.

**Subsequent:**
- Biden said the measure would create jobs.

**Exception:** In direct quotes, use whatever title the speaker uses:
- "The President will address the nation tonight," the spokesperson said.

### Named Professorships and Fellowships

Capitalize named professorships and fellowships.

**Examples:**
- the John F. Kennedy Professor of Government
- a Ford Foundation Fellow
- but: a chemistry professor, a teaching fellow

---

## Government and Political Terms

### Specific Government Bodies (Capitalize)

**Congress:**
- the U.S. Congress
- the Senate, the House of Representatives (when referring to U.S.)
- the House (when clear U.S. reference)
- but: congressional, senatorial (derived adjectives lowercase)

**State legislatures:**
- the California Legislature (specific state)
- the state Legislature (when the state is clear)
- but: the legislature voted, a legislature

**Executive:**
- the White House
- the Oval Office
- the Biden administration
- the administration (referring to a specific one)

**Judicial:**
- the U.S. Supreme Court
- the court (when referring to a specific court already identified)
- the Supreme Court justices
- the Roberts court (lowercase when referring to era)

### Generic Government Terms (Lowercase)

**Lowercase when used generically:**
- the federal government
- the state government
- city government
- local governments
- government agencies
- federal courts
- state courts

### Political Parties

Capitalize the name of political parties and the word "party" when it's part of a proper name.

**Examples:**
- the Democratic Party
- the Republican Party
- the Green Party
- a Democrat, a Republican (members of parties)
- democratic principles (lowercase when referring to concept, not party)
- republican ideals (lowercase when referring to concept)

### Capitalize "Party" Only as Part of Name

**Examples:**
- the party platform (lowercase party standing alone)
- the two parties agreed
- but: The Republican Party and Democratic Party differed.

### Laws, Bills, Acts

Capitalize the formal names of laws and bills. Lowercase informal references.

**Formal names (capitalize):**
- the Civil Rights Act
- the Affordable Care Act
- House Bill 123
- Senate Resolution 456

**Informal references (lowercase):**
- the healthcare law
- the civil rights legislation
- the bill would expand coverage

### Constitutions

**Capitalize:**
- the U.S. Constitution
- the Constitution (referring to U.S.)
- the Bill of Rights
- the First Amendment, the 14th Amendment

**Lowercase:**
- a constitutional amendment
- constitutional rights

---

## Organizations and Institutions

### Full Names

Capitalize the full names of organizations, institutions, and businesses.

**Examples:**
- Harvard University
- the United Nations
- the American Red Cross
- the Ford Motor Co.
- the New York Stock Exchange
- the Department of Defense

### Abbreviations on Second Reference

After first reference by full name, abbreviate or use shortened forms.

**Examples:**
- The United Nations issued a report. U.N. officials said...
- Harvard University announced the decision. The university said...
- The Department of Defense confirmed. The department, also known as the Pentagon...

### Generic References

Lowercase generic references.

**Examples:**
- She attends the university.
- The company reported earnings.
- The department issued guidelines.
- He works at the hospital.

### "The" in Organization Names

Do not capitalize "the" unless it's part of an organization's formal name (rare).

**Examples:**
- the Associated Press (not The)
- the United Nations
- The Hague (formal name includes The)
- The Ohio State University (if school insists, but AP uses: Ohio State University)

### Nicknames and Alternate Names

Capitalize widely recognized nicknames for organizations.

**Examples:**
- the Fed (Federal Reserve)
- the Pentagon (Department of Defense)
- Fannie Mae (Federal National Mortgage Association)
- the Big Board (New York Stock Exchange)

---

## Geographic Terms

### Specific Places

Capitalize names of specific geographic features.

**Examples:**
- Pacific Ocean
- Mississippi River
- Rocky Mountains
- Lake Michigan
- the Great Plains
- Silicon Valley
- the South (region of the U.S.)
- the Midwest
- the West Coast

### Regions vs. Directions

**Capitalize regions:**
- the South, the North, the East, the West (as U.S. regions)
- the Midwest, the Northeast, the Southwest
- the Middle East, the Far East
- a Southern accent, Western culture (when referring to regions)

**Lowercase compass directions:**
- Drive north on Interstate 5.
- The building faces east.
- They moved west.
- the northern part of the state

**Test:** If you can substitute a compass direction with a directional phrase (turn left, head toward sunset), use lowercase. If it's a proper region, capitalize.

### Countries and States

Capitalize the names of nations, states, counties, cities.

**Examples:**
- the United States, the United Kingdom
- California, Texas, New York
- Los Angeles County, Cook County
- New York City, Los Angeles

### Generic Terms

Lowercase generic terms standing alone.

**Examples:**
- the city (when city is clear from context)
- the state passed legislation
- the county budget
- the river flooded

**Capitalize when part of a proper name:**
- New York City officials
- Riverside County
- the Mississippi River

### Nationalities, Races, Tribes

Capitalize names of nationalities, races, ethnicities, and tribes.

**Examples:**
- American, French, Japanese
- African American, Asian American
- Black, white (see Race section for details)
- Cherokee, Navajo, Lakota

---

## Composition Titles

### What to Capitalize

For titles of books, movies, TV shows, plays, albums, songs, poems, articles, speeches, and works of art, capitalize:
- First and last words
- Principal words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs)

### What to Lowercase

Do not capitalize:
- Articles (a, an, the)
- Prepositions of three or fewer letters (in, on, to, for, of)
- Conjunctions of three or fewer letters (and, but, or, nor)

**Unless they are the first or last word in the title.**

### Examples

**Books and films:**
- "The Grapes of Wrath"
- "Gone With the Wind"
- "To Kill a Mockingbird"
- "A Tale of Two Cities"
- "Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King"

**Albums and songs:**
- "Born to Run"
- "The Sound of Silence"
- "Let It Be"

**TV shows:**
- "Game of Thrones"
- "The Office"
- "60 Minutes"

### Quotation Marks for Titles

Use quotation marks around titles of:
- Books, movies, TV shows, plays, operas
- Albums and songs
- Poems and short stories
- Magazine and newspaper articles
- Speeches

**Examples:**
- She read "The Great Gatsby."
- He watched "The Godfather."
- They sang "Yesterday."

### Exceptions—No Quotation Marks

Do not use quotation marks for:
- The Bible and books of the Bible: Genesis, Matthew
- Reference works: Webster's Dictionary, the AP Stylebook
- Newspapers and magazines: The New York Times, Time magazine
- Software and apps: Microsoft Word, Instagram
- Games: Monopoly, Scrabble

---

## Academic and Religious Terms

### Academic Degrees

**Avoid abbreviations unless space is tight.** When using abbreviations, set them off with commas.

**Preferred:**
- She earned a bachelor's degree in biology.
- He has a master's in business administration.
- She is pursuing a doctorate in chemistry.

**Abbreviations (if needed):**
- Jane Smith, B.A., joined the firm.
- John Jones, M.D., performed the surgery.
- She has a Ph.D. in physics.

**Lowercase general references:**
- bachelor's degree, master's degree, doctorate
- associate degree (no apostrophe)

**Capitalize specific degree names:**
- Bachelor of Arts in English
- Master of Business Administration

### Academic Departments

Capitalize official department names. Lowercase informal references.

**Capitalize:**
- the Department of History
- the School of Business

**Lowercase:**
- the history department
- a business school

### Courses

Capitalize specific course titles. Lowercase general subjects.

**Capitalize:**
- Introduction to Biology
- Advanced Calculus
- English Literature 101

**Lowercase:**
- a biology course
- She studies mathematics.
- He teaches history.

### Religious Terms

**Capitalize:**
- God (in monotheistic religions), Allah, Yahweh
- The Bible, the Quran, the Torah, the Book of Mormon
- Specific religious figures: Jesus Christ, the Prophet Muhammad, the Buddha
- Specific religious holidays: Christmas, Easter, Hanukkah, Ramadan, Diwali
- Religious denominations: Catholic, Baptist, Sunni, Shia, Orthodox

**Lowercase:**
- biblical, scriptural
- godly, godlike, godforsaken
- heaven, hell
- a priest, a rabbi, an imam
- the church (general), the mosque, the synagogue

**Capitalize when part of a name:**
- St. Peter's Basilica
- Temple Beth Israel

---

## Seasons, Days, Holidays

### Seasons

Lowercase seasons unless part of a formal name.

**Lowercase:**
- spring, summer, fall, winter
- the summer of 2024
- a winter storm
- she starts her spring semester

**Capitalize as part of proper names:**
- Winter Olympics
- Spring Training
- Fall Festival

### Days and Months

Capitalize days of the week and months of the year.

**Examples:**
- Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday
- January, February, March

### Holidays

Capitalize holidays and special observances.

**Examples:**
- Christmas, Easter, Thanksgiving
- Independence Day, Memorial Day, Veterans Day
- Martin Luther King Jr. Day
- Black Friday, Cyber Monday
- Election Day, Inauguration Day

---

## Miscellaneous Capitalization

### Internet Terms

**Lowercase:**
- internet
- web
- website
- email
- online

**Capitalize trademarked names:**
- Google, Facebook, Twitter, Instagram
- iPhone, iPad, Android

### Historical Periods and Events

**Capitalize:**
- the Middle Ages
- the Renaissance
- the Industrial Revolution
- the Civil War
- World War I, World War II
- the Great Depression
- the Cold War

**Lowercase:**
- the war (standing alone)
- a civil war (generic)
- the depression (generic)

### After a Colon in Headlines

Capitalize the first word after a colon in headlines.

**Example:**
- Winter storms: What you need to know

### Trade Names and Trademarks

Capitalize trade names.

**Examples:**
- Coca-Cola, Pepsi
- Xerox, Google, Kleenex
- Band-Aid, Jacuzzi, Dumpster

Use generic alternatives when appropriate in news writing:
- photocopy (not Xerox as verb)
- search (not Google as verb)
- tissue (not Kleenex)
- adhesive bandage (not Band-Aid)

---

# Part 3: Numbers

---

## Basic Rule

### One Through Nine

Spell out one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine.

**Examples:**
- She has three children.
- The bill passed on a five-vote margin.
- He won seven games.
- The school serves nine grades.

### 10 and Above

Use numerals for 10 and above.

**Examples:**
- She has 10 children.
- The bill passed on a 15-vote margin.
- He won 17 games.
- The school serves 12 grades.

---

## Exceptions—Always Use Numerals

Regardless of whether the number is below 10, always use numerals for:

### Ages

- The 5-year-old girl
- a 3-year-old car
- He is 7.
- a woman in her 30s
- 8-year-olds

### Addresses

- 5 Main St.
- 1600 Pennsylvania Ave.
- 7 Oak Lane

### Dates

- Jan. 3
- March 7
- the 1st of the month (but: first)
- 2024

### Percentages

- 3 percent, 9%
- a 5% increase
- 0.5%

### Decimals

- 3.5
- 0.7
- a 2.5-mile radius

### Dimensions

- 5 feet tall
- 3 inches by 5 inches
- a 9-by-12-foot room
- 2 miles

### Money

- $5, $9 million
- 5 cents, 9 euros

### Votes, Scores, Odds

- a 5-4 decision
- the score was 6-3
- 3-1 odds

### Time of Day

- 5 a.m., 9 p.m.
- 3:30 p.m.

### Temperature

- 5 degrees, 9 degrees below zero
- minus 3 degrees
- temperatures fell into the single digits

### Speeds

- 5 mph
- winds of 7 mph

### Highways and Routes

- Route 7
- Interstate 5
- U.S. Highway 1

### Chapters and Sections

- Chapter 3
- Page 5

### Academic Grades and Course Numbers

- Grade 5, first grade
- English 101, Physics 3

### Serial Numbers, Identification Numbers

- Room 3
- Flight 7
- Channel 5

### Recipes

- 3 cups flour
- 2 teaspoons salt

### Sports Statistics

- 3 hits in 7 at-bats
- a 9-under-par 63
- a 5-handicap golfer

---

## Exceptions—Always Spell Out

Regardless of size, spell out:

### Beginning of Sentence

Never begin a sentence with a numeral.

**Wrong:** 15 people attended.
**Correct:** Fifteen people attended.

**Alternative:** Rephrase to avoid starting with a number.
- The meeting drew 15 people.
- A total of 15 people attended.

**Exception:** Years can begin a sentence.
- 2024 was an election year.

### Casual or Indefinite Use

- hundreds of protesters
- thousands of dollars
- millions of people
- dozens of injuries
- a few hundred, several thousand

### Fractions Standing Alone

- one-half of the budget
- two-thirds of voters
- three-quarters full

But use numerals with whole numbers:
- 3 1/2 years
- 2 1/4 inches

### Formal Names of Military Units

- First Army
- Third Reich
- Fifth Amendment
- Seventh Fleet

### Ordinal Numbers in General Text

- first, second, third (through ninth)
- He finished third.
- It was her first attempt.

But use numerals for:
- 10th, 11th, 125th
- He finished 10th.

### Some Expressions

- one of the best
- a thousand and one reasons (idiom)
- one in a million (expression)

---

## Large Numbers

### Millions, Billions, Trillions

Use a numeral plus the word for numbers in the millions and higher.

**Examples:**
- 3 million people
- $5 billion
- 1.5 trillion
- 26 million, 312 million

**For exact figures, use all numerals:**
- The population is 3,456,789.
- Revenue was $1,234,567,890.

### Rounding

Round large numbers for readability when exactness isn't critical.

**Examples:**
- about 2 million
- nearly $5 billion
- more than 300,000

### Consistency in a Sentence

Use numerals consistently within a sentence.

**Consistent:**
- The company has 4 million customers and $7 billion in revenue.
- The vote was 8-5, with 2 abstentions.

**Inconsistent (avoid):**
- The company has four million customers and $7 billion in revenue.

---

## Ranges

### Connecting Words

Use "to" or "through" for ranges in running text.

**Examples:**
- 50 to 60 people attended
- pages 45 to 67
- Monday through Friday
- 2020 to 2024

### Hyphens/En Dashes for Ranges

In tables, charts, and some contexts, hyphens or en dashes may be used.

**Examples:**
- 50–60 people
- pages 45–67
- 2020–2024

### Suspensive Hyphenation

- 5- to 10-year terms
- $3 million to $5 million
- 10- to 15-minute intervals

---

## Dates

### Month-Day-Year

Use numerals for the day. Set off the year with commas.

**Examples:**
- Jan. 5, 2024, was the deadline.
- The event is scheduled for March 15, 2025.
- The Sept. 11, 2001, attacks changed security policy.

### Month-Year

No comma between month and year.

**Examples:**
- January 2024 was cold.
- The report from March 2023 showed...

### Day-Month-Year (Military Style)

No commas. Rare in general news writing.

**Example:**
- 5 January 2024

### Decades

Use numerals. No apostrophe before the s.

**Correct:**
- the 1990s
- the '90s (apostrophe for missing 19)
- the mid-1980s

**Wrong:**
- the 1990's

### Centuries

Spell out and use lowercase.

**Examples:**
- the 21st century
- 20th-century art
- fifth-century Rome

### Years

Use numerals.

**Examples:**
- 2024
- the year 2000
- 1776

**B.C. and A.D.:**
- 300 B.C.
- A.D. 500 (A.D. precedes the year)

---

## Times

### Time of Day

Use numerals with a.m. and p.m.

**Examples:**
- 9 a.m.
- 3:30 p.m.
- 11:45 a.m.

### Noon and Midnight

Use the words "noon" and "midnight," not 12 p.m. or 12 a.m.

**Correct:**
- The event begins at noon.
- The sale ends at midnight.

**Avoid:**
- 12 p.m., 12 a.m. (confusing)
- 12 noon, 12 midnight (redundant)

### On the Hour

The ":00" is unnecessary for times on the hour.

**Preferred:**
- The meeting is at 3 p.m.

**Acceptable:**
- The meeting is at 3:00 p.m.

### Time Zones

Use abbreviations, set off by commas.

**Examples:**
- 3 p.m. EST
- noon PDT
- The announcement came at 9 a.m. EDT, 6 a.m. PDT.

**Spell out when not following a time:**
- Eastern Standard Time
- Pacific Daylight Time

### Durations

**Spell out for casual references:**
- He spoke for about three hours.

**Use numerals for precise or sports times:**
- The meeting lasted 2 hours and 15 minutes.
- His time was 2:15:33.7.
- a 3-hour flight

---

## Money

### Dollar Amounts

Use the dollar sign with numerals.

**Examples:**
- $5, $25, $500
- $1,234
- $1 million, $5 billion
- $1.5 million
- 50 cents (spell out "cents")

**For amounts less than $1:**
- 5 cents, 75 cents
- Or: $0.50 (in tables)

### Ranges

- $3 million to $5 million
- $5 to $10

### Foreign Currencies

Identify the currency on first reference.

**Examples:**
- 5 million British pounds
- 3 billion Japanese yen
- 500 euros
- On subsequent reference: 2 million pounds, 1 billion yen

Use the exchange rate in parentheses when helpful:
- 100 million yen ($1 million)

---

## Addresses

### Street Numbers

Use numerals.

**Examples:**
- 5 Main St.
- 123 Oak Lane
- 1600 Pennsylvania Ave.

### Abbreviate Street Suffixes with Numbers

- St. (Street)
- Ave. (Avenue)
- Blvd. (Boulevard)

**Spell out without numbers:**
- Pennsylvania Avenue runs through Washington.
- Oak Street is closed.

### Compass Directions

Abbreviate compass directions in numbered addresses.

**Examples:**
- 500 N. Main St.
- 123 S.W. Oak Ave.

### Building Numbers, Suites

**Examples:**
- Room 5
- Suite 300
- Building 7

---

## Phone Numbers

### Format

Use parentheses for area code, hyphen between exchange and number.

**Examples:**
- (555) 123-4567
- (212) 555-7890

### Extensions

- (555) 123-4567, ext. 123

### Toll-Free

- (800) 555-1234

### International

Include country code.
- +44 20 7946 0958

---

## Sports Statistics

### Scores

Use numerals and hyphens.

**Examples:**
- The Giants won 24-17.
- a 6-3 victory
- The team won, 3-2.

### Records

Use hyphens.

**Examples:**
- The team is 10-5.
- He has a 15-3 record.
- They are 7-3-2 (wins-losses-ties).

### Individual Statistics

Use numerals.

**Examples:**
- He was 3 for 4 with 2 RBIs.
- She scored 25 points on 10-for-15 shooting.
- a .300 batting average
- an ERA of 3.45

### Odds

Use numerals and hyphens.

**Examples:**
- 5-1 odds
- The horse was a 3-1 favorite.
- 100-1 long shot

---

## Ratios and Odds

### Ratios

Use numerals and colons.

**Examples:**
- a 3:1 ratio
- The ratio of men to women is 2:1.

### Proportions

- 1 in 5 Americans
- one out of every three

---

# Part 4: Abbreviations and Acronyms

---

## General Principles

### First Reference

Spell out on first reference, then abbreviate.

**Example:**
- The National Aeronautics and Space Administration announced the mission. NASA officials said...

**Exception:** Widely recognized abbreviations need not be spelled out on first reference.
- FBI, CIA, NATO, AIDS, SAT
- NFL, NBA, MLB, NHL

### Periods in Abbreviations

**Use periods:**
- U.S., U.N. (when used as adjectives)
- a.m., p.m.
- etc., e.g., i.e.
- Dr., Mr., Mrs.

**No periods:**
- FBI, CIA, NASA, NATO
- CEO, CFO, CPA
- mph, kph

### The Test

If each letter is pronounced individually (F-B-I), no periods.
If pronounced as a word (NASA, AIDS), no periods.
If a shortened form of a word (Dr., Mr., Ave.), use periods.

---

## State Names

### With City Names

Abbreviate state names when used with city names. Use AP's traditional abbreviations (not postal codes) in text.

**Examples:**
- Sacramento, Calif.
- Boston, Mass.
- Atlanta, Ga.
- Denver, Colo.

### Standing Alone

Spell out state names standing alone in text.

**Examples:**
- She lives in California.
- The measure passed in Massachusetts.

### AP State Abbreviations

| State | Abbreviation |
|-------|--------------|
| Alabama | Ala. |
| Alaska | Alaska |
| Arizona | Ariz. |
| Arkansas | Ark. |
| California | Calif. |
| Colorado | Colo. |
| Connecticut | Conn. |
| Delaware | Del. |
| Florida | Fla. |
| Georgia | Ga. |
| Hawaii | Hawaii |
| Idaho | Idaho |
| Illinois | Ill. |
| Indiana | Ind. |
| Iowa | Iowa |
| Kansas | Kan. |
| Kentucky | Ky. |
| Louisiana | La. |
| Maine | Maine |
| Maryland | Md. |
| Massachusetts | Mass. |
| Michigan | Mich. |
| Minnesota | Minn. |
| Mississippi | Miss. |
| Missouri | Mo. |
| Montana | Mont. |
| Nebraska | Neb. |
| Nevada | Nev. |
| New Hampshire | N.H. |
| New Jersey | N.J. |
| New Mexico | N.M. |
| New York | N.Y. |
| North Carolina | N.C. |
| North Dakota | N.D. |
| Ohio | Ohio |
| Oklahoma | Okla. |
| Oregon | Ore. |
| Pennsylvania | Pa. |
| Rhode Island | R.I. |
| South Carolina | S.C. |
| South Dakota | S.D. |
| Tennessee | Tenn. |
| Texas | Texas |
| Utah | Utah |
| Vermont | Vt. |
| Virginia | Va. |
| Washington | Wash. |
| West Virginia | W.Va. |
| Wisconsin | Wis. |
| Wyoming | Wyo. |

**Eight states are never abbreviated:** Alaska, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, Maine, Ohio, Texas, Utah.

### Postal Codes

Use two-letter postal codes only in full addresses with ZIP codes.

**Example:**
- 1600 Pennsylvania Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20500

---

## Months and Days

### Months

Abbreviate months of more than five letters when used with specific dates.

**Abbreviate:**
- Jan., Feb., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec.

**Spell out:**
- March, April, May, June, July

**With dates:**
- Jan. 5, Feb. 15, Aug. 20
- March 3, April 10, July 4

**Standing alone:**
- January was cold.
- August temperatures soared.

### Days of the Week

Never abbreviate days of the week in text.

**Examples:**
- The meeting is Monday.
- She arrives on Friday.

**Exception:** In tables, calendars, and charts, abbreviations are acceptable.
- Sun., Mon., Tue., Wed., Thu., Fri., Sat.

---

## Titles

### Before Names

Abbreviate certain titles before full names.

**Abbreviate:**
- Dr. Jane Smith
- Gov. Gavin Newsom
- Lt. Gov. John Jones
- Rep. Nancy Pelosi
- Sen. Elizabeth Warren
- the Rev. Martin Luther King Jr.

**Spell out:**
- President Joe Biden (never "Pres.")
- Attorney General Merrick Garland
- Superintendent Jane Doe
- Secretary of State Antony Blinken

### After Names

Abbreviate and set off with commas.

**Examples:**
- John Smith, M.D., performed the surgery.
- Jane Doe, Ph.D., authored the study.
- Robert Jones Jr. attended. (no comma before Jr.)
- Mary Brown III spoke. (no comma before III)

### Military Titles

See Military section.

---

## Organizations and Agencies

### First Reference

Spell out organizational names on first reference.

**Examples:**
- The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) announced the arrests. The FBI said...
- The World Health Organization (WHO) issued guidelines. WHO officials said...

### Widely Known Abbreviations

The following may be used without spelling out:
- FBI, CIA, IRS, SEC
- NATO, WHO, UNICEF
- NFL, NBA, MLB, NHL, NCAA
- AIDS, DNA
- GOP (for Republican Party)

### Company Names

Follow the company's preference for Inc., Corp., Co., Ltd.

**Examples:**
- Apple Inc., Microsoft Corp., Ford Motor Co.
- Abbreviate on second reference or when space is tight.

---

## Units of Measurement

### General Rule

Spell out most units of measurement in regular text.

**Examples:**
- 5 feet tall
- 10 miles away
- 3 pounds
- 100 degrees

### Abbreviations in Technical Contexts

In charts, tables, or technical writing, abbreviations are acceptable.

**Common abbreviations:**
| Measurement | Abbreviation |
|-------------|--------------|
| inches | in. |
| feet | ft. |
| yards | yd. |
| miles | mi. |
| ounces | oz. |
| pounds | lb. or lbs. |
| miles per hour | mph |
| miles per gallon | mpg |
| kilometers | km |
| kilograms | kg |
| meters | m |
| centimeters | cm |
| millimeters | mm |

### Speed

Use numerals with "mph" (no periods).

**Examples:**
- 55 mph
- winds of 75 mph
- traveling at 100 mph

### Temperature

Spell out "degrees."

**Examples:**
- 72 degrees
- minus 5 degrees
- 10 degrees below zero

Use Fahrenheit in the U.S.; specify Celsius when relevant.
- 72 degrees Fahrenheit
- 22 degrees Celsius (22 C)

---

## Military Ranks

### Abbreviations Before Names

| Rank | Before Name |
|------|-------------|
| General | Gen. |
| Lieutenant General | Lt. Gen. |
| Major General | Maj. Gen. |
| Brigadier General | Brig. Gen. |
| Colonel | Col. |
| Lieutenant Colonel | Lt. Col. |
| Major | Maj. |
| Captain | Capt. |
| First Lieutenant | 1st Lt. |
| Second Lieutenant | 2nd Lt. |
| Sergeant Major | Sgt. Maj. |
| Master Sergeant | Master Sgt. |
| Sergeant First Class | Sgt. 1st Class |
| Staff Sergeant | Staff Sgt. |
| Sergeant | Sgt. |
| Corporal | Cpl. |
| Private First Class | Pfc. |
| Private | Pvt. |
| Admiral | Adm. |
| Vice Admiral | Vice Adm. |
| Rear Admiral | Rear Adm. |
| Commander | Cmdr. |
| Lieutenant Commander | Lt. Cmdr. |
| Lieutenant | Lt. |
| Ensign | Ensign |

### Navy, Coast Guard, Air Force, Marines

Military ranks vary slightly by branch. Use the appropriate style.

### Retired Officers

- retired Gen. Colin Powell
- Gen. Colin Powell (ret.)

---

## Other Common Abbreviations

### Latin Terms

- i.e. (that is)—Use to clarify or restate
- e.g. (for example)—Use before examples
- etc. (and so forth)—Use sparingly; be specific when possible
- et al. (and others)—Use in citations
- vs. (versus)—In sports and legal references

**Usage notes:**
- Set off with commas: The company, i.e., ABC Corp., announced...
- Avoid starting sentences with these.

### Miscellaneous

| Term | Abbreviation |
|------|--------------|
| Number | No. (with figures: No. 5) |
| Saint | St. (St. Louis) |
| Mount | Mt. (Mt. Everest) |
| Fort | Ft. (Ft. Worth) |
| versus | vs. |
| approximately | approx. (tables only) |

---

# Part 5: Titles and Names

---

## Personal Names

### First and Last Names

Use a person's full name on first reference. Use last name only on subsequent references.

**First reference:**
- Joe Biden, president of the United States
- Taylor Swift, the Grammy-winning singer

**Subsequent:**
- Biden signed the bill.
- Swift announced her tour.

### Preferred Names

Use the name a person prefers.

**Examples:**
- Bill Clinton (not William)
- Jimmy Carter (not James)
- Tony Blair (not Anthony)
- Magic Johnson (not Earvin)

If unsure, ask. Verify spelling.

### Nicknames

Use quotation marks for nicknames in the middle of a name.

**Examples:**
- George "The Babe" Ruth
- Eldrick "Tiger" Woods

If the nickname is all the person is known by, no quotes:
- Magic Johnson (not Earvin "Magic" Johnson)
- Babe Ruth

### Suffixes

Do not use a comma before Jr. or Sr. or Roman numerals.

**Examples:**
- Martin Luther King Jr.
- Thurston Howell III
- John D. Rockefeller IV

### Women's Names

Do not use courtesy titles (Ms., Miss, Mrs.) on first reference. Use last name alone on subsequent reference.

**First reference:**
- Jane Smith, the attorney...

**Subsequent:**
- Smith argued the case.

**Exception:** Use courtesy titles in direct quotes if that's how the source referred to someone.

### Hyphenated Names

Use the person's preference.

**Examples:**
- Hillary Rodham Clinton (no hyphen)
- Ruth Bader Ginsburg
- Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez (hyphenated)

### Initials

Use periods, no space between initials.

**Examples:**
- J.K. Rowling
- F.D.R.
- M.L.K. Jr.

### Foreign Names

**Particles (de, von, van, etc.):**
- Ludwig van Beethoven (lowercase "van" in running text)
- Charles de Gaulle
- On second reference: Beethoven, de Gaulle

**Chinese, Korean, Japanese names:**
- The family name traditionally comes first: Xi Jinping (Xi is family name)
- On second reference: Xi

**Vietnamese, Thai names:**
- Follow individual preference
- When unclear, ask or research

### Jr., Sr., II, III

Use these designations when part of a person's name. On subsequent reference, the designation may be dropped unless needed to distinguish from another person.

---

## Professional Titles

### Before Names

Capitalize formal titles before names. Lowercase after names or standing alone.

**Before name:**
- President Joe Biden
- Chief Executive Officer Mary Smith
- Director John Jones

**After name:**
- Joe Biden, president of the United States
- Mary Smith, chief executive officer of the company

### Long Titles

Place long titles after the name.

**Awkward:**
- Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for European Affairs John Smith said...

**Better:**
- John Smith, deputy assistant secretary of state for European affairs, said...

### Corporate Titles

Use the title the company uses, but lowercase job descriptions.

**Examples:**
- Tim Cook, chief executive officer of Apple (or CEO on second reference)
- Mary Barra, CEO of General Motors
- John Smith, senior vice president of marketing

---

## Legislative Titles

### Members of Congress

**Senate:**
- Sen. Elizabeth Warren, D-Mass.
- the senator, the Massachusetts senator

**House:**
- Rep. Nancy Pelosi, D-Calif.
- the congresswoman, the representative

**Party affiliation:** Include party and state in parentheses on first reference.
- Sen. Mitch McConnell (R-Ky.) or Sen. Mitch McConnell, R-Ky.

### State Legislators

**Examples:**
- state Sen. John Smith
- state Rep. Jane Doe
- Assemblyman Robert Jones (California)
- state Assembly Speaker Mary Brown

### Former Members

**Examples:**
- former Sen. John Smith
- former Rep. Jane Doe

---

## Courtesy Titles

### General Rule

Do not use courtesy titles (Mr., Mrs., Ms., Miss) on first reference.

**First reference:**
- John Smith, the attorney
- Jane Doe, the plaintiff

### Second Reference

Use last name only, without courtesy title, for most references.

**Example:**
- Smith testified. Doe listened.

### When to Use Courtesy Titles

Some publications use courtesy titles on second reference in certain contexts. Follow your local style guide.

### In Direct Quotes

Use whatever title the speaker used.

**Example:**
- "Mrs. Johnson was a wonderful neighbor," Smith said.

---

## Academic Titles

### Before Names

**Examples:**
- Dr. Anthony Fauci (medical doctor)
- Dr. Jane Smith (if she has a doctoral degree and prefers Dr.)

**Note:** Do not use Dr. for people with non-medical doctorates unless that is their preference and it's relevant to the story.

### After Names

**Examples:**
- Jane Smith, who holds a doctorate in physics
- John Jones, M.D.
- Mary Brown, Ph.D.

### Professors

**Examples:**
- Professor John Smith (formal title)
- professor of economics John Smith (job description)
- John Smith, a Harvard economics professor

---

## Religious Titles

### Catholic

- Pope Francis (first reference), the pope (subsequent)
- Cardinal John Smith (first), the cardinal, Smith (subsequent)
- Archbishop Mary Jones
- Bishop Robert Brown
- the Rev. John Smith (priests)
- Msgr. Joseph White (monsignor)
- Sister Mary Catherine
- Brother Joseph

### Protestant

- the Rev. Martin Luther King Jr.
- Pastor John Smith
- Bishop Jane Doe
- the Rev. Jane Doe

### Jewish

- Rabbi John Smith
- Cantor Mary Jones

### Islamic

- Imam Muhammad Ali

### Buddhist

- the Dalai Lama (first), the Dalai Lama (subsequent—unique case)

---

## Royalty and Nobility

### British Royalty

**Examples:**
- King Charles III (first reference)
- the king (subsequent)
- Prince William
- the prince
- Princess Catherine
- Queen Elizabeth II (historical)

**Dukes, earls, lords:**
- the Duke of Westminster
- the duke
- Lord Jones

### Other Royal Families

Follow the conventions of the country.

---

# Part 6: Attribution and Quotations

---

## Said

### The Preferred Attribution

Use "said" for most attribution. It's neutral and invisible to readers.

**Examples:**
- "The project is on schedule," she said.
- He said the proposal would fail.
- Officials said the investigation continues.

### Alternatives to "Said"

Use alternatives sparingly and only when they add meaning.

**Acceptable alternatives:**
- stated (for formal statements)
- announced (for formal announcements)
- explained (when explaining something complex)
- added (for additional comments)
- asked (for questions)
- replied, responded (for answers)
- testified (in legal contexts)
- wrote (for written communications)

**Avoid:**
- noted (implies something is notable)
- claimed (implies doubt)
- admitted (implies guilt)
- declared (overblown)
- exclaimed (usually unnecessary)
- quipped (let readers judge if it's witty)

### Attribution Placement

**After a short quote:**
- "The project is on schedule," she said.

**In the middle of a quote:**
- "The project," she said, "is on schedule."

**Before a long quote:**
- Smith said: "The project is on schedule. We expect to finish by December, and the results will exceed expectations."

### "Says" vs. "Said"

Use past tense "said" for news stories reporting events.

Use present tense "says" for:
- Feature stories and profiles
- Ongoing statements or positions
- Publications and reports (which continue to "say" what's written)

**Examples:**
- The report says unemployment is declining.
- Smith says he supports the measure. (feature story)

### Attribution for Written Material

**Reports, studies, documents:**
- The report said... / The report says...
- According to the study...
- The document states...

**Avoid "The report admitted" or "The report claimed."**

---

## Quotation Guidelines

### Direct vs. Indirect Quotes

**Direct quote:** The person's exact words, in quotation marks.
- "The legislation will fail," she said.

**Indirect quote (paraphrase):** The sense of what was said, without quotes.
- She said the legislation would fail.

**When to use direct quotes:**
- Particularly compelling or colorful language
- Controversial statements (let the speaker own them)
- Language that would lose meaning in paraphrase
- Technical or legal language that must be exact

**When to paraphrase:**
- Mundane or routine statements
- Awkward or unclear phrasing
- Long, rambling statements that can be condensed

### Partial Quotes

Use partial quotes when only a few words are distinctive enough to quote directly.

**Examples:**
- She called the proposal "dead on arrival."
- He described the verdict as "a miscarriage of justice."

**Avoid overusing partial quotes.** If it's not distinctive, paraphrase.

- **Weak partial quote:** He said the project was "going well."
- **Better:** He said the project was going well.

### Accuracy

Never alter quotes to fit your preference. You may:
- Fix obvious grammatical errors that don't change meaning
- Remove verbal tics (um, uh, you know)
- Use ellipsis (...) to indicate omitted words

**Never:**
- Change words
- Add words not spoken
- Take quotes out of context

### Cleaning Up Quotes

**Acceptable:**
- Fixing minor grammatical slips that a speaker would correct if reading their own words
- Removing false starts and repetitions
- Adjusting for clarity (carefully)

**Not acceptable:**
- Changing the substance or tone
- Making someone sound smarter or dumber
- Inserting words the person didn't say

When in doubt, paraphrase rather than misquote.

### Block Quotes

For quotes longer than two sentences, consider using block format.

**Example:**
Smith issued a statement: "The company has achieved record growth this year. We expanded into three new markets, hired 500 employees, and increased revenue by 25 percent. We're excited about the future."

### Interviewing Best Practices

- Take notes or record (with permission)
- Read back quotes to sources to verify accuracy when possible
- If a quote seems too good or too damaging, double-check it
- Keep notes and recordings

---

## Anonymous Sources

### When to Use

Anonymous sources should be used sparingly. Use them only when:
- The information is vital to the story
- The source has direct knowledge
- No on-the-record source can provide the information
- The source faces real risk from being identified

### How to Attribute

Be as specific as possible about the source's position.

**Preferred:** according to a senior White House official authorized to speak on condition of anonymity
**Acceptable:** according to a source familiar with the negotiations
**Avoid:** according to sources (vague)

### What to Avoid

- "Sources said" without specifying how many or their credibility
- Anonymous attacks on individuals
- Anonymous opinions or speculation
- Using anonymity for convenience

### Verification

Verify information from anonymous sources with at least one other source when possible.

---

## On the Record, Off the Record, Background

### On the Record

Everything can be used and attributed to the source by name.

### On Background (Not for Attribution)

Information can be used but not attributed to the source by name. Use a description: "a senior official," "a person familiar with the matter."

### Off the Record

Information cannot be used or attributed in any way. It's for the reporter's understanding only.

**Clarify terms before an interview.** Meanings vary by organization.

### Deep Background

Information can inform reporting but cannot be used directly or attributed in any way. The reporter may use the knowledge to seek the information elsewhere.

---

# Part 7: Word Usage and Style

---

## Commonly Confused Words

### Accept / Except

**Accept:** To receive, agree to.
- She accepted the award.
- He accepted the terms.

**Except:** Excluding, but.
- Everyone was there except John.
- She agreed to all terms except one.

### Adverse / Averse

**Adverse:** Unfavorable, harmful.
- adverse weather conditions
- adverse effects

**Averse:** Opposed, reluctant.
- She is averse to risk.
- He is not averse to compromise.

### Affect / Effect

**Affect (verb):** To influence.
- The weather will affect attendance.
- The policy affects millions.

**Effect (noun):** Result, consequence.
- The effect was immediate.
- The law had unintended effects.

**Effect (verb):** To bring about (formal).
- They hope to effect change.

**Affect (noun):** Emotional state (psychology term).
- flat affect (technical usage)

### Aggravate / Irritate

**Aggravate:** To make worse.
- The injury was aggravated by continued play.

**Irritate:** To annoy.
- His comments irritated her.

### Allude / Elude

**Allude:** To refer to indirectly.
- She alluded to problems in the department.

**Elude:** To escape, evade.
- The suspect eluded police.

### Among / Between

**Among:** For three or more.
- The money was divided among five heirs.
- among the candidates

**Between:** For two.
- The money was divided between two heirs.
- negotiations between the U.S. and China

**Exception:** "Between" is sometimes used for more than two when the relationship involves distinct pairs or individuals.
- The treaty between the three nations (each has distinct relationship with the others)

### Anxious / Eager

**Anxious:** Worried, uneasy.
- She was anxious about the test results.

**Eager:** Looking forward to.
- She was eager to start the new job.

### Bring / Take

**Bring:** Movement toward the speaker.
- Bring the report to me.
- Bring your umbrella here.

**Take:** Movement away from the speaker.
- Take this report to her.
- Take your umbrella when you go.

### Capital / Capitol

**Capital:** Seat of government; money; uppercase letter.
- Austin is the capital of Texas.
- They need more capital.
- a capital offense

**Capitol:** The building.
- The state capitol building
- the U.S. Capitol

### Compose / Comprise

**Compose:** To make up, create.
- Fifty states compose the United States.
- The committee is composed of 12 members.

**Comprise:** To include, contain.
- The United States comprises 50 states.
- The committee comprises 12 members.

**Never:** comprised of (incorrect)

### Continual / Continuous

**Continual:** Repeated, intermittent.
- continual interruptions
- continual attempts

**Continuous:** Uninterrupted, constant.
- continuous noise
- The rain was continuous for three hours.

### Discreet / Discrete

**Discreet:** Careful, tactful, prudent.
- Please be discreet about this matter.

**Discrete:** Separate, distinct.
- three discrete categories
- discrete data points

### Disinterested / Uninterested

**Disinterested:** Impartial, neutral.
- We need a disinterested arbitrator.

**Uninterested:** Lacking interest, not caring.
- He was uninterested in the discussion.

### Ensure / Insure / Assure

**Ensure:** To guarantee.
- Steps were taken to ensure success.

**Insure:** To provide insurance.
- We insured the house for $500,000.

**Assure:** To reassure a person.
- She assured him the project was on track.

### Farther / Further

**Farther:** Physical distance.
- They walked farther than expected.
- How much farther is it?

**Further:** Abstract degree.
- They discussed the matter further.
- Further research is needed.

### Fewer / Less

**Fewer:** Things that can be counted.
- fewer employees
- fewer than 10 items

**Less:** Things that cannot be counted (quantities, amounts).
- less money
- less time
- less than $100

### Historic / Historical

**Historic:** Significant in history.
- a historic decision
- a historic building

**Historical:** Relating to history.
- a historical novel
- historical records

Use "a" (not "an") before both.

### Imply / Infer

**Imply:** To suggest (speaker/writer does this).
- He implied she was wrong.
- The data imply a trend.

**Infer:** To conclude (listener/reader does this).
- She inferred from his tone that he was angry.
- We can infer a trend from the data.

### Its / It's

**Its:** Possessive.
- The company raised its prices.
- The dog wagged its tail.

**It's:** Contraction of "it is" or "it has."
- It's going to rain.
- It's been a long day.

### Lay / Lie

**Lay:** To put or place (transitive—requires an object).
- Lay the book on the table.
- She laid the book down.
- Past tense: laid. Past participle: laid.

**Lie:** To recline (intransitive—no object).
- I need to lie down.
- She lay on the couch yesterday.
- Past tense: lay. Past participle: lain.

### Lead / Led

**Lead:** Present tense verb; the metal.
- She will lead the meeting.
- lead pipes

**Led:** Past tense of "lead."
- She led the meeting yesterday.

### Lose / Loose

**Lose:** To misplace, fail to win.
- Don't lose your keys.
- They could lose the game.

**Loose:** Not tight.
- The bolt was loose.
- loose clothing

### Principal / Principle

**Principal:** Main, chief; head of a school; amount of money.
- the principal reason
- the school principal
- principal and interest

**Principle:** A fundamental truth or belief.
- the principle of free speech
- a matter of principle

### Stationary / Stationery

**Stationary:** Not moving.
- The car was stationary.

**Stationery:** Writing paper.
- company stationery

### Than / Then

**Than:** Comparison.
- She is taller than him.
- More than 100 people attended.

**Then:** Time, sequence.
- We ate, then left.
- He was younger then.

### That / Which

**That:** Introduces essential (restrictive) clauses.
- The house that Jack built (identifies which house)

**Which:** Introduces nonessential (nonrestrictive) clauses, set off by commas.
- The house, which Jack built, was destroyed. (adds information about an already-identified house)

### Their / There / They're

**Their:** Possessive.
- their house, their decision

**There:** Location; introductory word.
- over there
- There are three reasons.

**They're:** Contraction of "they are."
- They're going to the meeting.

### To / Too / Two

**To:** Direction; infinitive.
- Go to the store.
- She wants to leave.

**Too:** Also; excessively.
- I want to go too.
- It's too hot.

**Two:** The number.
- two candidates

### Who / Whom

**Who:** Subject.
- Who is calling?
- The man who called...

**Whom:** Object.
- To whom it may concern.
- The man whom she called...

**Test:** Substitute he/she or him/her. If "him" sounds right, use "whom."

### Who's / Whose

**Who's:** Contraction of "who is" or "who has."
- Who's there?
- Who's been eating my porridge?

**Whose:** Possessive.
- Whose book is this?
- The woman whose car was stolen...

### Your / You're

**Your:** Possessive.
- your house, your opinion

**You're:** Contraction of "you are."
- You're welcome.
- You're going to be late.

---

## Usage Preferences

### A / An

Use "a" before words beginning with consonant sounds.
Use "an" before words beginning with vowel sounds.

**Examples:**
- a historic event (the "h" is pronounced)
- an honorable man (the "h" is silent)
- a union (sounds like "yoo-nion")
- an umbrella
- a one-time offer (sounds like "wun")

### Active vs. Passive Voice

Prefer active voice. It's clearer and more direct.

**Active:** The committee approved the budget.
**Passive:** The budget was approved by the committee.

Use passive when:
- The actor is unknown: The window was broken.
- The action is more important than the actor: The bill was signed into law.
- You want to emphasize the recipient: She was awarded the prize.

### Collective Nouns

Collective nouns (team, committee, company, jury) take singular verbs and pronouns when acting as a unit.

**Examples:**
- The team is celebrating its victory.
- The committee has reached its decision.
- The company announced its earnings.

Use plural when members act individually.
- The jury were unable to agree. (members disagreeing)

### Data

"Data" is a plural noun (singular: datum), but singular use is increasingly accepted.

**Formal:** The data show a trend.
**Acceptable:** The data shows a trend.

Be consistent within a story.

### None

"None" can be singular or plural depending on meaning.

**Singular (not one):**
- None of the money was recovered.
- None of the cake is left.

**Plural (not any):**
- None of the students were present.
- None of the options are acceptable.

### Over / More Than

Both are acceptable for numerical comparisons.

**Both correct:**
- more than 100 people
- over 100 people

### Since / Because

"Since" is acceptable for "because," but use "because" if "since" could be confused with time.

**Clear:** Since he was tired, he went to bed. (because)
**Ambiguous:** He has changed since he became CEO. (time or cause?)

### That / Who

Use "who" for people and animals with names.
Use "that" for inanimate objects and animals without names.

**Examples:**
- The woman who called (person)
- The dog that barked (unnamed animal)
- Fido, who loves to play (named animal)
- The car that was stolen (object)

### Toward / Towards

Use "toward" (American English).

**Correct:** She walked toward the door.
**Avoid:** She walked towards the door.

Similarly: backward, forward, upward (not backwards, forwards, upwards).

---

## Spelling Preferences

### -ize vs. -ise

American English prefers -ize:
- organize, recognize, realize, maximize
- exception: advertise, supervise, compromise, exercise

### -or vs. -our

American English uses -or:
- color, honor, labor, neighbor
- not colour, honour, labour, neighbour

### -er vs. -re

American English uses -er:
- center, theater, caliber
- not centre, theatre, calibre

### Double Consonants

**Travel:** traveled, traveling, traveler (single l in American English)
**Cancel:** canceled, canceling (single l)
**Model:** modeled, modeling (single l)
**Focus:** focused, focusing (single s)
**Bias:** biased, biasing (single s)

### Common Misspellings

| Correct | Incorrect |
|---------|-----------|
| accommodate | accomodate |
| commitment | committment |
| consensus | concensus |
| definitely | definately |
| desperate | desparate |
| embarrass | embarass |
| existence | existance |
| February | Febuary |
| fiery | firey |
| government | goverment |
| harass | harrass |
| independent | independant |
| judgment | judgement |
| liaison | liason |
| lightning | lightening |
| maintenance | maintainance |
| millennium | millenium |
| necessary | neccessary |
| occurred | occured |
| parallel | paralell |
| personnel | personel |
| possession | posession |
| privilege | priviledge |
| publicly | publically |
| receive | recieve |
| recommend | reccommend |
| rhythm | rythm |
| separate | seperate |
| supersede | supercede |
| until | untill |
| weird | wierd |

---

## Words to Avoid

### Overused, Vague, or Clichéd

| Avoid | Use Instead |
|-------|-------------|
| at this point in time | now, currently |
| back in the day | in the past, then |
| basically | [delete or be specific] |
| dialogue (as verb) | discuss, talk |
| iconic | [be specific about significance] |
| impact (as verb) | affect |
| in order to | to |
| in terms of | regarding, for |
| leverage (as verb) | use |
| literally | [use only for literal meaning] |
| LOL | [avoid in news writing] |
| moving forward | in the future |
| on a daily basis | daily |
| parameter | limit, factor |
| reach out | contact, call, email |
| robust | strong, healthy |
| synergy | cooperation |
| take to social media | post on social media |
| that being said | however |
| the fact that | that |
| touch base | contact, meet |
| utilize | use |
| very unique | unique |
| viral | widely shared |

### Redundancies

| Redundant | Use |
|-----------|-----|
| 12 noon | noon |
| 12 midnight | midnight |
| advance planning | planning |
| armed gunman | gunman |
| basic fundamentals | fundamentals |
| brief summary | summary |
| close proximity | near, proximity |
| completely destroyed | destroyed |
| consensus of opinion | consensus |
| continue to remain | remain |
| end result | result |
| free gift | gift |
| future plans | plans |
| general public | public |
| join together | join |
| new innovation | innovation |
| past history | history |
| personal opinion | opinion |
| reason is because | reason is that |
| return back | return |
| true fact | fact |
| unexpected surprise | surprise |
| whether or not | whether |

---

# Part 8: Race, Identity, and Sensitivity

---

## Race and Ethnicity

### General Principles

- Mention race or ethnicity when relevant to the story.
- Do not mention race if it would not be mentioned for a white person in the same context.
- Let sources identify their own race or ethnicity when possible.
- Avoid broad generalizations about racial or ethnic groups.

### Black / African American

Capitalize "Black" when referring to people as a race or ethnicity.

**Examples:**
- Black Americans
- the Black community
- Black voters

"African American" is acceptable but not all Black people identify as African American.

When possible, use the specific term a person prefers.

### White

AP capitalizes "Black" but lowercases "white" because "white" doesn't represent a shared culture and history the way "Black" does.

**Example:**
- Black and white voters

Some publications capitalize "White." Follow your organization's style.

### Asian American / Pacific Islander

Use "Asian American" (no hyphen) for people of Asian descent in the U.S.

Be as specific as possible: Chinese American, Korean American, Filipino American.

"Pacific Islander" is preferred to "Asian Pacific Islander" for people from Pacific Island nations.

### Hispanic / Latino / Latina / Latinx

**Hispanic:** People from Spanish-speaking countries (includes Spain).
**Latino/Latina:** People of Latin American origin or descent (gender-specific).
**Latinx:** Gender-neutral alternative (not universally accepted).
**Latine:** Another gender-neutral option.

Use the term the individual prefers. If unknown, "Hispanic" or "Latino/Latina" are widely accepted.

### Native Americans, Indigenous peoples

Per AP Stylebook 58th edition (2026), Native American / Indigenous identity is treated as a top-level entry distinct from race-related coverage. This identity reaches beyond race into the sovereignty and self-determination of tribal nations and their citizens. Treat references with that broader framing—not as a purely racial designation.

**Terms.** "Native American," "Indigenous," and "American Indian" are all acceptable. Individuals, communities, and tribal nations have preferences; defer to the person, community, or tribal nation referenced when known.

**Capitalization.** Capitalize "Indigenous" when referring to original inhabitants of a place or to people in a cultural/political sense.

**Identification.** When possible, identify by tribal affiliation:
- Cherokee, Navajo, Lakota, Diné, Haudenosaunee, Hopi, Inuit

**Sovereignty framing.** Tribal nations are sovereign political entities; their citizens are citizens of those nations. Note this framing when relevant to the story—treaty rights, jurisdiction, federal recognition, land use, citizenship status. Avoid framing tribal nations as solely a racial or ethnic grouping when sovereignty is at issue.

### Biracial / Multiracial

Use terms people use for themselves.

**Examples:**
- biracial
- multiracial
- mixed race

### Racial Slurs

Do not use racial slurs in news copy unless absolutely essential to the story, and then only in direct quotes with context. Consult editors.

### Nationality vs. Ethnicity

Distinguish between nationality (country of citizenship) and ethnicity (cultural heritage).

**Example:**
- She is a German citizen of Turkish descent.

---

## Gender and Sexual Orientation

### Gender-Neutral Language

Use gender-neutral terms when possible.

| Instead of | Use |
|------------|-----|
| chairman | chair, chairperson |
| congressman | member of Congress, representative |
| fireman | firefighter |
| mankind | humanity, people |
| policeman | police officer |
| spokesman | spokesperson |
| stewardess | flight attendant |

### They/Them as Singular

"They/them" is acceptable as a singular pronoun for people who identify as nonbinary or when gender is unknown.

**Examples:**
- Alex said they would attend. (Alex uses they/them pronouns)
- A source said they witnessed the accident. (gender unknown)

On first reference, clarify: "Alex Smith, who uses they/them pronouns, said..."

### LGBTQ+

**LGBTQ:** Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer/questioning. The "+" encompasses other identities.

**Terms:**
- gay: Acceptable for men and women, or as an adjective (the gay community)
- lesbian: Women attracted to women
- bisexual: Attracted to more than one gender
- transgender: Gender identity differs from sex assigned at birth
- cisgender: Gender identity matches sex assigned at birth
- nonbinary: Gender identity outside the male/female binary
- queer: Reclaimed term; some still find it offensive; use only if someone self-identifies

**Avoid:**
- homosexual (clinical, outdated)
- sexual preference (implies choice; use "sexual orientation")
- transgendered (use "transgender")
- a transgender (use "a transgender person")

### Deadnaming

Do not use a transgender person's birth name ("deadname") unless relevant to the story and the person consents. Use current name and pronouns.

### Same-Sex Marriage

Use "marriage" or "same-sex marriage," not "gay marriage."

---

## Disability

### General Principles

- Use person-first language unless the individual prefers otherwise.
- Focus on abilities, not limitations.
- Do not define people by their disability.

### Person-First Language

**Use:**
- a person with a disability
- a woman who uses a wheelchair
- people with autism
- a man with schizophrenia

**Avoid:**
- the disabled, the handicapped
- wheelchair-bound
- autistic person (unless person prefers)
- schizophrenic

### Identity-First Exceptions

Some communities prefer identity-first language:
- Deaf person, Deaf community (cultural identity)
- blind person
- autistic person (some prefer this)

Follow the individual's preference.

### Specific Terms

**Avoid:**
- handicapped (outdated)
- crippled, cripple
- suffers from, afflicted with
- victim of
- confined to a wheelchair

**Use:**
- has [condition]
- lives with [condition]
- uses a wheelchair

### Mental Health

**Avoid:**
- crazy, insane, psycho (derogatory)
- committed suicide (implies crime)

**Use:**
- died by suicide, took their own life
- a person with a mental illness
- a person with depression

---

## Age

### Specific Ages

Always use numerals for ages.

**Examples:**
- The boy, 5, was found safe.
- A 7-year-old girl
- The woman is in her 60s.

### Age-Related Terms

**Avoid:**
- elderly (vague, potentially condescending)
- senior citizen (use sparingly)
- aged

**Use:**
- older adults, older people
- people 65 and older
- retirees (if applicable)

### Ageism

Avoid patronizing language or assumptions about capabilities based on age.

---

## Socioeconomic Status

### Avoid Stigmatizing Language

| Avoid | Use |
|-------|-----|
| the homeless | people who are homeless, unhoused people |
| the poor | people living in poverty |
| illegal immigrant | undocumented immigrant |
| welfare recipient | person receiving government assistance |
| at-risk | [be specific about what risks] |
| inner city | urban, [name the neighborhood] |
| ghetto, slum | low-income neighborhood |

### Immigration

**Avoid:**
- illegal immigrant, illegal alien
- illegals

**Use:**
- undocumented immigrant
- unauthorized immigrant
- immigrant living in the country without legal permission

"Illegal" describes actions, not people.

---

# Part 9: Legal and Court Terminology

---

## Court Names

### Federal Courts

**U.S. Supreme Court:**
- the Supreme Court (cap S, cap C when referring to U.S.)
- the court (lowercase when standing alone)
- the high court
- the nation's highest court

**U.S. Courts of Appeals (circuit courts):**
- the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals
- the 9th Circuit
- the appeals court

**U.S. District Courts:**
- the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York
- the federal district court
- the court

### State Courts

**State supreme courts:**
- the California Supreme Court
- the state Supreme Court
- the court

**Lower state courts:**
- Superior Court (varies by state)
- District Court
- Circuit Court

### Capitalization

Capitalize "Court" when referring to the U.S. Supreme Court in all subsequent references.
Lowercase "court" for other courts on subsequent reference.

---

## Criminal Justice

### Stages of a Case

**Arrest:** Police take someone into custody.
**Charge:** Formal accusation by prosecution.
**Arraignment:** Defendant appears, enters plea.
**Indictment:** Formal charge by grand jury.
**Trial:** Evidence presented to judge or jury.
**Verdict:** Decision of guilt or innocence.
**Sentence:** Punishment imposed.
**Appeal:** Request for higher court review.

### Terminology

**Accused / Alleged:**
Use "accused" or "alleged" until conviction.
- The accused robber...
- Smith, who allegedly robbed the bank...
- Smith, who police say robbed the bank...

After conviction: the robber, the killer (no "alleged").

**Convict / Inmate / Prisoner:**
- convict: Person convicted of crime
- inmate: Person housed in jail or prison
- prisoner: Person incarcerated
- defendant: Person charged with crime

**Jury terms:**
- grand jury: Determines if enough evidence to charge
- petit jury: Trial jury that determines guilt

**Verdicts:**
- guilty / not guilty (not "innocent")
- acquitted

**Sentences:**
- sentenced to 10 years in prison
- sentenced to death, sentenced to life in prison
- parole: supervised release before end of sentence
- probation: supervised freedom instead of incarceration

### Crime Terms

**Homicide:** Killing of one person by another (not necessarily criminal).
**Murder:** Unlawful killing with intent.
**Manslaughter:** Unlawful killing without premeditation.
- voluntary manslaughter: in the heat of passion
- involuntary manslaughter: unintentional

**Assault / Battery:**
- assault: threat of violence
- battery: actual physical contact
(Usage varies by jurisdiction)

**Burglary / Robbery:**
- burglary: unlawful entry with intent to commit crime
- robbery: taking property by force or threat
- theft: taking property without force

**Felony / Misdemeanor:**
- felony: serious crime, typically punishable by more than one year in prison
- misdemeanor: less serious crime

### Cautions

- Do not call someone a criminal, killer, murderer, etc., unless they've been convicted.
- Use "allegedly" carefully—it doesn't protect against libel if you imply guilt.
- Report charges accurately; do not embellish.
- Follow developments; report acquittals, dropped charges, dismissals.

---

## Civil Matters

### Lawsuits

**Terminology:**
- plaintiff: party bringing suit
- defendant: party being sued
- petitioner / respondent: in some proceedings

**Actions:**
- filed a lawsuit, filed suit
- settled (out of court)
- dismissed
- judgment for plaintiff/defendant

### Reporting Civil Matters

- Identify all parties clearly.
- Note what is alleged, not proven.
- Settlement amounts are often confidential; report only if confirmed.

---

## Privacy Considerations

### Juveniles

Do not identify juveniles accused or convicted of crimes unless:
- They are charged as adults
- They are victims of homicide
- Local laws permit identification

### Sexual Assault Victims

Do not identify sexual assault victims without their consent.

### Sealed Records

Do not publish information from sealed court records.

---

# Part 10: Sports

---

## Scores

### Format

Use numerals and hyphens.

**Examples:**
- The Giants beat the Dodgers 5-3.
- The final score was 24-17.
- a 3-2 victory

### Within a Sentence

- The Packers (7-3) beat the Bears (4-6), 27-10.

---

## Records

### Team Records

Use wins-losses-ties format.

**Examples:**
- The team is 10-5.
- They improved to 8-2.
- The 7-3-2 team (wins-losses-ties)

### Individual Records

- She has a 15-3 record.
- His career record is 50-10.

---

## Statistics

### Baseball

- batting average: .300 (not 0.300)
- earned run average: 3.45 ERA
- RBI (singular and plural): 2 RBIs, 100 RBIs
- hits: 3 for 4, 2-for-5

### Basketball

- points: 25 points
- shooting percentage: 10-for-15 shooting, 50% from the field
- rebounds: 10 rebounds
- assists: 8 assists

### Football

- yards: 150 yards rushing, 300 passing yards
- touchdowns: 3 TDs
- interceptions: 2 INTs

### Golf

- par: 72-par course, par 4
- under/over par: 5-under-par 67, 2 over par
- rounds: 68-70-72-65—275

### Hockey

- goals-assists: 2 goals, 3 assists
- save percentage: .920 save percentage

### Soccer

- goals: 2 goals
- assists: 1 assist
- clean sheet: kept a clean sheet

---

## Team Names

### Plural vs. Singular

Most team names are plural and take plural verbs.

**Plural:**
- The Giants are playing well.
- The Yankees won the series.

**Singular (collective names):**
- The Heat is on a winning streak.
- The Jazz is rebuilding.

### Location and Nickname

First reference: city and nickname.
Subsequent: nickname alone.

**Examples:**
- First: The New York Yankees signed a new pitcher.
- Subsequent: The Yankees announced...

### Relocation

Use current city for current references. Use historical city for historical events.

**Example:**
- The Baltimore Ravens (current)
- The Cleveland Browns won Super Bowl XXIX before moving to Baltimore.

---

## Common Sports Terms

### Baseball

- at-bat, at-bats
- designated hitter, DH
- double play, triple play
- grand slam
- home run, homer
- line drive
- no-hitter, perfect game
- pinch-hit, pinch-hitter
- RBI (runs batted in)—RBIs plural
- run, runs
- strikeout (noun), strike out (verb)

### Football

- end zone
- field goal
- first down, first-down (adjective: first-down conversion)
- fourth-and-1, third-and-10
- halftime
- kickoff (noun), kick off (verb)
- line of scrimmage
- overtime
- pass completion
- quarterback, QB
- red zone
- sack (noun and verb)
- touchdown, TD
- two-point conversion

### Basketball

- alley-oop
- assist
- dunk
- fast break
- field goal
- foul, foul shot, free throw
- half-court
- layup
- rebound
- slam dunk
- three-pointer, 3-point shot
- turnover

### Hockey

- assist
- face-off
- goal
- hat trick (three goals by one player)
- penalty box
- power play
- puck
- save
- shutout

### Soccer

- corner kick
- free kick
- goal
- hat trick
- header
- match
- own goal
- penalty kick
- red card, yellow card
- stoppage time

### Golf

- birdie (one under par)
- bogey (one over par)
- eagle (two under par)
- hole-in-one
- par

### Tennis

- ace
- break, break point
- deuce
- fault, double fault
- love (zero)
- match point
- set, set point
- tiebreaker

---

# Part 11: Business and Finance

---

## Company Names

### First Reference

Use the full company name on first reference.

**Examples:**
- The Ford Motor Co.
- General Motors Corp.
- Microsoft Corp.
- Apple Inc.

### Subsequent Reference

Use shortened forms.

**Examples:**
- Ford, GM, Microsoft, Apple

### Inc., Corp., Co., Ltd.

Follow the company's legal designation. These may be abbreviated and do not require a comma before them.

**Examples:**
- Apple Inc. announced...
- Ford Motor Co. reported...

### "The" in Company Names

Do not capitalize "the" in company names unless it's part of the formal name (rare).

**Examples:**
- the Coca-Cola Co.
- the Associated Press

### Subsidiaries and Divisions

Identify parent company when relevant.

**Example:**
- Instagram, owned by Meta, announced...

---

## Financial Terms

### Stock Markets

- New York Stock Exchange, NYSE
- Nasdaq (not NASDAQ)
- S&P 500, the Dow Jones Industrial Average, the Dow

### Stock Prices

- The stock rose $3.50 to $150.25.
- Shares fell 5%.
- up 2 points, down 100 points

### Earnings

- earnings per share (EPS)
- revenue
- profit, net income
- loss, net loss
- quarterly results

**Example:**
- The company reported earnings of $1.50 per share, up from $1.25 a year earlier.

### Financial Ratios

- price-to-earnings ratio (P/E ratio)
- return on investment (ROI)
- debt-to-equity ratio

### Mergers and Acquisitions

- acquired
- merged with
- takeover, hostile takeover
- tender offer
- buyout, leveraged buyout (LBO)

### Bankruptcy

- Chapter 11: reorganization
- Chapter 7: liquidation
- bankruptcy protection
- emerged from bankruptcy

### Terms to Define for General Audiences

| Term | Definition |
|------|------------|
| bond | debt security; loan to government or company |
| dividend | payment to shareholders |
| IPO | initial public offering; first sale of stock to public |
| mutual fund | pool of stocks/bonds managed professionally |
| recession | economic decline; technically two consecutive quarters of GDP decline |
| GDP | gross domestic product; total value of goods/services produced |

---

## Currency

### U.S. Currency

Use the dollar sign and numerals.

**Examples:**
- $5, $500, $5,000
- $1 million, $5 billion
- 50 cents, $0.50

### Foreign Currency

Identify on first reference.

**Examples:**
- 100 British pounds ($125)
- 10,000 Japanese yen ($92)
- 50 euros ($55)

On subsequent reference in the same context:
- The price dropped to 90 pounds.

### Exchange Rates

When relevant, include approximate U.S. dollar equivalent.

---

# Part 12: Weather

---

## Temperature

### Format

Use numerals with "degrees."

**Examples:**
- 72 degrees
- minus 5 degrees
- 10 degrees below zero
- temperatures in the 80s

### Fahrenheit vs. Celsius

Use Fahrenheit for U.S. audiences. Include Celsius when relevant (international stories, scientific contexts).

**Example:**
- The high reached 95 degrees Fahrenheit (35 Celsius).

---

## Wind

### Speed

Use numerals with "mph."

**Examples:**
- winds of 75 mph
- gusts up to 100 mph
- 15 mph winds

### Direction

Lowercase compass directions.

**Examples:**
- north winds
- a southwest wind
- winds from the northwest

---

## Precipitation

### Rain

- light rain, moderate rain, heavy rain
- scattered showers
- rainfall amounts: 2 inches of rain

### Snow

- light snow, heavy snow
- snow accumulation: 6 to 10 inches
- blizzard conditions

### Severe Weather

- thunderstorm, severe thunderstorm
- tornado, tornado watch, tornado warning
- hurricane, tropical storm
- flood watch, flood warning, flash flood warning

**Watch vs. Warning:**
- Watch: Conditions are favorable for severe weather.
- Warning: Severe weather is imminent or occurring.

---

## Storm Names

### Hurricanes and Tropical Storms

The National Hurricane Center names storms. Use the name on subsequent reference.

**First reference:**
- Hurricane Maria

**Subsequent:**
- Maria, the hurricane, the storm

### Retired Names

Particularly deadly or costly storms have their names retired.

---

## Climate and Weather Terminology

### Specific Terms

- climate: long-term patterns
- weather: short-term conditions
- climate change: long-term shift in global climate patterns
- global warming: increase in Earth's average temperature

### Avoiding Imprecision

Be specific about:
- Time periods
- Geographic areas
- Data sources

**Vague:** Temperatures are rising.
**Better:** Global average temperatures have risen 1.1 degrees Celsius since the pre-industrial era, according to NASA.

---

# Part 13: Health and Medicine

---

## Medical Terms

### Diseases and Conditions

Lowercase disease names unless they contain a proper noun.

**Lowercase:**
- diabetes, cancer, flu, pneumonia
- heart disease, Alzheimer's disease

**Capitalize proper nouns:**
- Parkinson's disease
- Hodgkin lymphoma
- Down syndrome

### COVID-19

- COVID-19 (the disease)
- coronavirus (the virus, generally)
- SARS-CoV-2 (the specific virus)

### Drug Names

**Generic names:** lowercase
- aspirin, ibuprofen, acetaminophen

**Brand names:** capitalize
- Tylenol, Advil, Motrin

On first reference, include both when relevant:
- acetaminophen (sold as Tylenol)

### Medical Titles

**Use Dr. on first reference for:**
- Medical doctors
- Doctors of dental surgery
- Doctors of osteopathic medicine
- Optometrists
- Podiatrists
- Veterinarians (when treating animals)

**Do not use Dr. for:**
- Ph.D. holders (unless the story is about their academic work)

### Studies and Research

**Be cautious:**
- Distinguish between preliminary findings and established science.
- Note study limitations.
- Include sample sizes and methodology when relevant.
- Attribute findings to researchers/institutions.

**Example:**
- A study in the New England Journal of Medicine found that... Researchers cautioned that the findings were preliminary and based on a small sample.

---

## Death and Illness

### Cause of Death

Report when known and appropriate.

**Examples:**
- died of cancer
- died from injuries sustained in the crash
- died after a long illness (when cause isn't specified or is private)

### Suicide

- died by suicide (not "committed suicide")
- took his/her own life
- died of an apparent suicide

Include resources when covering suicide:
- If you or someone you know is in crisis, contact the 988 Suicide and Crisis Lifeline by calling or texting 988.

### Sensitive Health Conditions

- Respect privacy regarding health conditions.
- Report only what's relevant and confirmed.
- Avoid stigmatizing language.

---

# Part 14: Science and Technology

---

## Scientific Terms

### Organisms

**Scientific names:**
- Italicize genus and species: *Homo sapiens*, *Escherichia coli* (*E. coli* on second reference)

**Common names:**
- Lowercase unless beginning a sentence: dog, cat, hummingbird

### Measurements

**Metric vs. Imperial:**
- Use familiar measurements for U.S. audiences.
- Include metric equivalents for international/scientific contexts.

**Example:**
- The meteor was about 50 feet (15 meters) wide.

### Space

- moon, sun (lowercase when referring to Earth's)
- Earth (capitalize when referring to the planet, not when meaning soil/ground)
- solar system
- Milky Way

### Technology Terms

**Common terms:**
- internet (lowercase)
- website
- email
- online
- smartphone
- social media
- app (short for application)

**Capitalized (trademarks):**
- Google, Facebook, Twitter, TikTok, Instagram
- iPhone, iPad, Android
- Wi-Fi (trademark)

### AI and Computing Terms

The following terms entered standard usage with AP Stylebook 58th edition (2026). McClatchy style preferences below are derived from AP guidance, encoded as actionable rules.

**AI agent**
- A software system that takes actions autonomously on behalf of a user or institution, often coordinating with other agents and adapting as it goes (e.g., booking travel or making purchases within a defined budget). "Agentic AI" is acceptable for a system composed of multiple coordinating agents.
- **Style:** when using "AI agent" or "agentic AI" in copy, briefly explain the specific use case the agent performs. Do not assume reader familiarity with the term.

**AI chips**
- Computer chips that power AI systems; the building blocks for training, testing, improving, and operating AI models. The most common type is the graphics processing unit (GPU).
- **Style:** on first reference, introduce with a concrete example (typically GPUs) and a brief functional explanation. Avoid bare technical references that assume reader familiarity.

**AI model**
- A software program trained on a dataset that can recognize patterns, make predictions or decisions, or generate text, code, video, audio, images, or other media in response to human queries.
- **Style:** acceptable on first reference. When naming a specific model (e.g., GPT-4o, Claude Opus), use the model name and identify the provider on first mention.

**AI slop**
- Low-quality, mass-produced content generated by AI tools, often created to drive ad revenue or online engagement. May include AI-generated text, music, imagery, video, nonconsensual images, or realistic deepfakes.
- **Style:** acceptable for describing low-quality AI-generated content encountered in the wild; specify what type (text / audio / imagery / video / deepfakes) when relevant. **Do not use** to describe McClatchy's own CSA-generated output—CSA output is editorially supervised, not slop; using the term self-referentially creates a semantic conflict.

**compute** (noun)
- The computing power and resources needed to build, test, and operate AI models.
- **Style:** prefer "computing power" or "processing power" over the bare noun "compute" outside direct quotes. The verb form (to make a calculation) is the more familiar reading and the noun risks confusion. Use "compute" as a noun only when in a direct quote.

**data center**
- A large facility housing chips, servers, and computers that process and analyze data. Many data centers now power AI systems.
- **Style:** "data center" is the base term and is sufficient in most contexts. Specify AI-focused variants ("AI data center," "AI computing facility," "AI supercomputer," "AI factory") only when the AI-specific function is relevant to the story.

**vibe coding**
- Slang for using an AI coding tool to write or troubleshoot code, relying on large language models to translate plain-language instructions into working code.
- **Style:** avoid "vibe coding" outside direct quotes. Prefer clearer constructions: "using an AI coding tool," "using an AI assistant to write code," or "AI-assisted code generation."

---

# Part 15: Religion

---

## Religious Texts

### Major Texts

- the Bible, biblical
- the Quran (not Koran), Quranic
- the Torah
- the Book of Mormon

Do not put quotation marks around titles of religious texts.

### Books of the Bible

Capitalize and do not use quotation marks.

**Examples:**
- Genesis
- Matthew
- Psalms

Citations: John 3:16

---

## Religious Figures

### Titles

**Capitalize before names:**
- Pope Francis
- the Rev. Martin Luther King Jr.
- Rabbi David Cohen
- Imam Muhammad Ali
- the Dalai Lama

**Lowercase standing alone:**
- the pope
- the priest
- the rabbi

### Deity References

Capitalize names of deities and religious figures.

**Examples:**
- God, Allah, Yahweh
- Jesus Christ, the Prophet Muhammad, the Buddha

Lowercase pronouns referring to deities: he, him, his.

---

## Denominations and Groups

### Christianity

- Roman Catholic, Catholic
- Protestant
- Baptist, Methodist, Presbyterian, Lutheran, Episcopal
- Orthodox (Eastern Orthodox, Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox)
- Mormon (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints prefers full name)
- Evangelical

### Islam

- Sunni, Shia (not Shiite)
- Muslim (not Moslem)

### Judaism

- Orthodox, Conservative, Reform

### Other Religions

- Hindu, Hinduism
- Buddhist, Buddhism
- Sikh, Sikhism

---

## Religious Terms

### Mass and Services

- Mass (Catholic service, capitalize)
- service, worship service

### Holidays

Capitalize religious holidays:
- Christmas, Easter, Good Friday
- Hanukkah, Passover, Yom Kippur, Rosh Hashana
- Ramadan, Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha
- Diwali

---

# Part 16: Elections and Politics

---

## Candidates and Officials

### Titles

**Before election:**
- candidate John Smith
- Democratic candidate Jane Doe
- former Gov. John Smith

**After election:**
- President-elect John Smith
- Gov.-elect Jane Doe

### Party Identification

Include party and state on first reference.

**Examples:**
- Sen. John Smith (R-Texas)
- Rep. Jane Doe, D-Calif.

---

## Voting and Results

### Terms

- plurality: most votes (not necessarily majority)
- majority: more than half
- runoff: subsequent election between top candidates
- recount: recounting of votes

### Reporting Results

**Be precise:**
- Smith won with 52% of the vote.
- The unofficial results show...
- With 95% of precincts reporting...
- AP has called the race for Smith.

**Avoid:**
- calling races before they're officially called
- unverified claims of fraud or irregularities

### Vote Counts

Use numerals.

**Examples:**
- Smith received 1,234,567 votes.
- a margin of 50,000 votes
- a 52%-48% victory

---

## Political Terms

### Government Bodies

- Congress (U.S.), congressional
- Senate, House of Representatives, the House
- state Legislature, state Senate, state House/Assembly

### Positions

- speaker of the House
- majority leader, minority leader
- whip

### Laws and Bills

Capitalize formal names:
- the Voting Rights Act
- House Bill 1234

Lowercase informal references:
- the infrastructure bill

---

# Part 17: Military

---

## Ranks

See the Abbreviations section for rank abbreviations.

### First Reference

Use rank and full name.

**Example:**
- Gen. Mark Milley

### Subsequent Reference

Use last name only (no rank).

**Example:**
- Milley said...

### Retired Officers

- retired Gen. Colin Powell
- Gen. Colin Powell (ret.)

---

## Units and Branches

### U.S. Military Branches

- Army
- Navy
- Air Force
- Marine Corps, Marines
- Coast Guard
- Space Force

### Units

- 1st Infantry Division
- 82nd Airborne Division
- Seventh Fleet
- the battalion, the regiment

Capitalize formal names; lowercase generic references.

---

## Military Actions

### Terms

- deployment: sending troops
- casualty: anyone killed, wounded, or missing
- fatality: death
- combat, firefight, skirmish, battle

### Reporting Conflicts

- Be precise about numbers and sources.
- Distinguish between confirmed and unconfirmed reports.
- Identify sources of casualty figures.

---

# Part 18: Food and Dining

---

## Measurements

### Recipe Format

Use numerals.

**Examples:**
- 1 cup flour
- 2 tablespoons butter
- 1/2 teaspoon salt
- 3 1/2 cups milk

### Abbreviations

| Term | Abbreviation |
|------|--------------|
| teaspoon | tsp. |
| tablespoon | tbsp. |
| cup | c. |
| ounce | oz. |
| pound | lb. |

Use abbreviations in recipes; spell out in running text.

---

## Cuisine and Dishes

### Capitalization

Capitalize proper nouns; lowercase generic terms.

**Capitalize:**
- French fries (but usage is shifting to lowercase)
- Cobb salad
- Waldorf salad
- Champagne (from Champagne region; sparkling wine otherwise)
- Parmesan cheese (from Parma)
- Swiss cheese

**Lowercase:**
- pasta, pizza, sushi
- french fries (increasingly common)
- hamburger, hot dog

### Restaurant Coverage

- Identify cuisine type clearly.
- Include price ranges when relevant.
- Note reservations, hours, location.

---

# Part 19: Environment and Energy

---

## Climate Terminology

### Climate Change vs. Global Warming

- **Climate change:** Preferred term for long-term shifts in global climate patterns
- **Global warming:** Specifically refers to rising average temperatures

### Attribution

When discussing causes:
- human-caused climate change
- greenhouse gas emissions
- carbon dioxide emissions

---

## Energy Terms

### Types of Energy

- fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas)
- renewable energy (solar, wind, hydroelectric)
- nuclear energy
- clean energy

### Measurements

- kilowatt-hour (kWh)
- megawatt (MW)
- barrel (of oil)

---

## Environmental Terms

### Pollution

- air pollution, water pollution
- emissions
- particulate matter

### Conservation

- endangered species
- habitat
- ecosystem
- biodiversity

---

# Part 20: Transportation

---

## Vehicles

### Cars and Trucks

- Make and model on first reference: Ford F-150
- Generic terms: pickup, sedan, SUV

### Aircraft

- airline names: American Airlines, United Airlines
- aircraft types: Boeing 737, Airbus A320
- Flight 123 (capitalize)

### Ships

- Ship names in italics or quotes depending on style
- USS Enterprise (U.S. Navy vessels)

---

## Traffic and Accidents

### Terms

- crash, collision (not "accident" when fault is clear)
- fatality
- injury crash, fatal crash

### Reporting

- Include location precisely.
- Note road closures, delays.
- Cite official sources.

---

# Part 21: Headlines and Captions

---

## Headlines

### Capitalization

For most newspapers and AP, headlines use sentence case (capitalize first word and proper nouns only) or headline case (capitalize principal words). Follow your publication's style.

### Verb Tense

Use present tense for current events.

**Example:**
- Mayor signs budget bill

Use infinitives for future events.

**Example:**
- Council to vote on proposal

### Abbreviations

Abbreviations acceptable in headlines if well-known.

**Examples:**
- FBI arrests suspect
- WHO issues warning

### Numbers

Numerals are generally preferred in headlines.

**Example:**
- 3 dead in crash

### Punctuation

- No period at the end of headlines.
- Use semicolon instead of period between clauses.
- Use comma for "and" to save space.
- Colon introduces explanations.

**Example:**
- Storm hits coast; 3 dead

---

## Captions

### Format

Captions describe the image and provide context.

**Structure:**
1. Describe what's in the photo.
2. Identify people (usually left to right).
3. Provide context, date, location.

### Verb Tense

Use present tense to describe action in the photo.

**Example:**
- Mayor Jane Smith cuts the ribbon at the new library opening Tuesday in Sacramento.

### Credit Lines

Include photographer credit per your publication's style.

**Example:**
- Jane Doe / The Sacramento Bee

---

# Part 22: Datelines

---

## Format

Dateline format: CITY—story begins here.

**Example:**
- SACRAMENTO—The governor signed the bill Tuesday.

---

## When to Use

Use datelines for stories filed from locations other than where the publication is based.

Do not use datelines for:
- Local stories
- Stories compiled from multiple locations
- Commentary and editorials

---

## Cities That Stand Alone

Major world cities do not require a country or state:

**U.S. cities:**
ATLANTA, BALTIMORE, BOSTON, CHICAGO, CINCINNATI, CLEVELAND, DALLAS, DENVER, DETROIT, HONOLULU, HOUSTON, INDIANAPOLIS, LAS VEGAS, LOS ANGELES, MIAMI, MILWAUKEE, MINNEAPOLIS, NEW ORLEANS, NEW YORK, OKLAHOMA CITY, PHILADELPHIA, PHOENIX, PITTSBURGH, ST. LOUIS, SALT LAKE CITY, SAN ANTONIO, SAN DIEGO, SAN FRANCISCO, SEATTLE, WASHINGTON

**International cities:**
AMSTERDAM, ATHENS, BAGHDAD, BANGKOK, BEIJING, BEIRUT, BERLIN, BRUSSELS, CAIRO, DUBLIN, GENEVA, GUATEMALA CITY, HAVANA, HELSINKI, HONG KONG, ISLAMABAD, ISTANBUL, JERUSALEM, JOHANNESBURG, KIEV, KUALA LUMPUR, LIMA, LISBON, LONDON, LUXEMBOURG, MADRID, MEXICO CITY, MILAN, MONACO, MONTREAL, MOSCOW, MUNICH, NEW DELHI, OSLO, OTTAWA, PANAMA CITY, PARIS, PRAGUE, QUEBEC CITY, RIO DE JANEIRO, ROME, SAN SALVADOR, SANTIAGO, SAO PAULO, SEOUL, SINGAPORE, STOCKHOLM, SYDNEY, TAIPEI, TEHRAN, TOKYO, TORONTO, TUNIS, VANCOUVER, VATICAN CITY, VIENNA, WARSAW, ZURICH

---

## Cities Requiring State Names

U.S. cities not on the stand-alone list require the state name.

**Example:**
- SACRAMENTO, Calif. —
- AUSTIN, Texas —

---

## International Datelines

Cities not on the stand-alone list require the country.

**Example:**
- LAGOS, Nigeria —
- BRISBANE, Australia —

---

# Appendices

---

## Appendix A: Commonly Misspelled Words

### A-D

- accommodate
- acknowledgment
- acquit
- adviser (not advisor)
- afterward (not afterwards)
- all right (not alright)
- A lot (two words, not alot)
- bachelor's degree
- buses (not busses)
- canceled, canceling (one l)
- capitol (building), capital (city, money)
- cemetery
- commitment
- consensus
- definite, definitely

### E-K

- embarrass
- employee (not employe)
- existence
- fiery
- focused, focusing
- fulfill
- government
- grammar
- grievance
- harass
- independent
- indispensable
- inoculate
- judgment
- kidnapped, kidnapping

### L-R

- liaison
- license
- lightning
- liquefy
- maintenance
- maneuver
- memento (not momento)
- millennium
- minuscule (not miniscule)
- mischievous
- misspell
- necessary
- occurred
- parallel
- pastime
- perseverance
- Philippines
- playwright
- possession
- potato, potatoes
- privilege
- publicly
- questionnaire
- receive
- recommend
- referred
- rhythm

### S-Z

- secede
- seize
- separate
- siege
- sophomore
- subpoena
- succeed
- supersede
- tomato, tomatoes
- traveled, traveling
- unforeseen
- until
- vacuum
- weird
- withhold

---

## Appendix B: Redundancies to Avoid

| Redundant Phrase | Preferred |
|------------------|-----------|
| 12 midnight | midnight |
| 12 noon | noon |
| absolutely essential | essential |
| added bonus | bonus |
| advance planning | planning |
| armed gunman | gunman |
| at this point in time | now |
| ATM machine | ATM |
| basic fundamentals | fundamentals |
| brief moment | moment |
| burning fire | fire |
| close proximity | near |
| completely destroyed | destroyed |
| consensus of opinion | consensus |
| continue to remain | remain |
| end result | result |
| entirely eliminated | eliminated |
| exact same | same |
| final outcome | outcome |
| first began | began |
| foreign imports | imports |
| free gift | gift |
| future plans | plans |
| general public | public |
| HIV virus | HIV |
| invited guests | guests |
| join together | join |
| local resident | resident |
| natural instinct | instinct |
| new innovation | innovation |
| old adage | adage |
| overexaggerate | exaggerate |
| past history | history |
| personal opinion | opinion |
| PIN number | PIN |
| plan ahead | plan |
| pre-recorded | recorded |
| reason why | reason |
| refer back | refer |
| regular routine | routine |
| repeat again | repeat |
| revert back | revert |
| serious danger | danger |
| sudden impulse | impulse |
| sum total | total |
| surrounded on all sides | surrounded |
| unexpected surprise | surprise |
| unsolved mystery | mystery |
| usual custom | custom |
| various different | various |

---

## Appendix C: Clichés to Avoid

### Avoid These Phrases

- all walks of life
- at long last
- at the end of the day
- avoid like the plague
- back burner
- back to square one
- ballpark figure
- between a rock and a hard place
- bitter end
- bottom line
- calm before the storm
- clear as mud
- cutting edge
- déjà vu all over again
- exercise caution
- face the music
- few and far between
- flat as a pancake
- food for thought
- foreseeable future
- give 110%
- going forward
- hit the ground running
- in harm's way
- in the wake of
- it remains to be seen
- last but not least
- level playing field
- needless to say
- on the same page
- outside the box
- perfect storm
- plays a role
- pushing the envelope
- raise the bar
- remains to be seen
- sea change
- sends a message
- stand shoulder to shoulder
- state of the art
- take it to the next level
- the fact of the matter
- think outside the box
- tip of the iceberg
- uphill battle
- wake-up call
- white elephant
- worst-case scenario

---

## Appendix D: Problematic Phrases

### Consider Alternatives

| Instead of | Consider |
|------------|----------|
| accident (when fault is known) | crash, collision |
| admit (implies guilt) | said, acknowledged |
| allegedly (doesn't protect against libel) | police said, according to charges |
| at this moment | now |
| claimed (implies doubt) | said |
| collided with (implies both at fault) | struck, hit |
| controversial | [describe the controversy] |
| died of natural causes | [specify if known] |
| disclosed (implies secrecy) | said, announced |
| fled on foot | ran |
| informed sources | [be more specific] |
| kept mum | did not comment |
| penned | wrote |
| proactive | [be specific] |
| refute (means disprove) | deny, dispute |
| slam, blast (for criticism) | criticize |
| spiraling out of control | [describe specifically] |
| take to Twitter | post on Twitter |
| transpired | happened |
| very unique | unique |

---

## Appendix E: Tricky Plurals

### Standard Plurals

| Singular | Plural |
|----------|--------|
| appendix | appendixes or appendices |
| criterion | criteria |
| datum | data (singular usage now common) |
| formula | formulas |
| index | indexes or indices |
| medium | media (for communication); mediums (spiritualists) |
| memorandum | memorandums or memoranda |
| phenomenon | phenomena |
| referendum | referendums |
| stadium | stadiums |
| stimulus | stimuli |
| syllabus | syllabi or syllabuses |

### Unchanged Plurals

| Singular/Plural |
|-----------------|
| aircraft |
| deer |
| fish |
| moose |
| salmon |
| series |
| sheep |
| species |
| trout |

### Compound Plurals

| Singular | Plural |
|----------|--------|
| attorney general | attorneys general |
| court-martial | courts-martial |
| daughter-in-law | daughters-in-law |
| editor in chief | editors in chief |
| maid of honor | maids of honor |
| man-of-war | men-of-war |
| notary public | notaries public |
| passer-by | passers-by |
| runner-up | runners-up |
| sister-in-law | sisters-in-law |